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OFFICIAL FLAG OF THE CITY OF 
NEW ORLEANS. 



HIS flag was accepted by Mayor Behrman and 
raised over the City Hall, February ninth, nine- 
teen hundred and eighteen. It was designed by 
Bernard Barry and Gustave Couret, assisted 
by Miss Ida Barrow, who first conceived the idea of the 
adoption of a flag for the City of New Orleans. 

"This flag commemorates the birth and the infancy 
of New Orleans, while it symbolizes the ideals of good 
government and the triumph of DEMOCRACY." 



Courtesy of W. J. WAGUESPACK. 




1. Monarchical France. 



3. First French Republic. 



5. State Flag, adopted by the Louisiana Con- 
vention which passed the Ordinance of 
Secession. 



7. The present Flag of the United States. 



2. Spain. 

4. Flag of the United States in 1803. when 
Louisiana was ceded to the United States 
by France, Napoleon Bonaparte, First 
Consul. 

In 1812, when Louisiana was admitted 
into the Union. 

In 1815. when the Battle of New Orleans 
was fought. 

6. Confederate Flag, Act of Confederate Con- 
gress, 1863. 

8. The present State Flag, adopted by the 
General Assembly of Louisiana, Act 39 of 
1912. 



THE NEW ORLEANS 

BOOK 



PUBLISHED BY 

ORLEANS PARISH SCHOOL BOARD 



New Orleans. 

SEAECY & PFAFF, ltd. 

720-728 Ferdldo Street. 

1919. 






Copyrighted 1919 

By 

ORLEANS PARISH SCHOOL BOARD. 

New Orleans, La. 



»-»*' 



©CI.A5611J 4 






INTRODUCTION. 




F the opportunities within her reach are intelligently 
realized, New Orleans will become one of the great 
centers of the world. Love of country is a feeling in- 
herent in every normal hoy and girl. Community patriot- 
ism — an outgrowth of the modern conditions of life — 
takes the form of great pride in one's native city, or in the city one has 
adopted as one's home, and inevitably leads to good results. 

We want to inculcate in the children of our city a keen, vivid 
interest in its past history, in its present, and in its future. Economy 
in government, good order, cleanliness, and honesty must be the out- 
come of the education of the children, if our city is to take and main- 
tain its place in civilization. That the growth of a city is measured 
by the civic interest of its people is a recognized fact. New conditions 
demand that all children should be taught they are the coming respon- 
sible heads of the community. 

There was a time when the national government was controlled 
principally by men from small towns or farms. Today, our Presi- 
dents are city men who are calling into their cabinets advisors from 
our great municipalities, thus proving, "He who makes the city makes 
the world." 



PREFACE. 



T is only meet that the public should know how this study of New Orleans was made 

I possible. The accomplishment of the task was at first doubtful ; but the passing weeks 

revealed the lively disposition of the gentlemen of New Orleans to assist in making 
New Orleans known to the children of the Southern metropolis. To the courtesy, 
civic interest, and co-operation of those gentlemen whom it was our pleasure to inter- 
view and otherwise communicate with, is due the existence of this book. 

Our kind readers will no doubt sometimes be surprised at the relative size of 

some of the illustrations. We crave their indulgence. Such discrepancies are the 

result of the very limited cost of the book, which prevented all the illustrations being made to order, 

and caused dependence upon the generosity of friends of the work, for the majority of the 

illustrations. 

To the following gentlemen and organizations, we desire to extend special thanks for informa- 
tion, advice, criticism, or illustrations: Robert Glenk. T. P. Thompson, Gaspar Cusach, Norman 
Walker, W. 0. Hart, J. Zach. Spearing, Judge I. D. Moore. Prof. Ellsworth Woodward. S. Locke 
Breaux, L. E. Bentley, E. E. Lafaye. Dr. Jos. Holt, Dr. G. F. Patton, Dr. I. M. Cline, Dr. W. H. 
Robin, Stanlev C. Arthur, Leonard Nicholson, George G. Earle. Sidney Lewis. Chris Reuter, Tiley 
McChesnev, the Louisiana State Museum, Southern Pacific Railroad, Association of Commerce, 
Board of Trade, and the officials of the city. 

We wish to express our appreciation of the unfailing courtesv and co-operation of the gentle- 
men of the New Orleans Board of Public School Directors and the Superintendents of the New 
Orleans Public Schools. Tt is our sincere wish that "The New Orleans Book" will attain the end 
they desire, namely, the dissemination of knowledge of New Orleans, fostering of love of our unique 
city, and development of a true civic spirit, active in times of peace, in reform, and improvement 
along lines conservative of the city's individuality and, yet, abreast with real progress, — and stead- 
fast, true, and self-sacrificing- in times of trouble and trial which, in the progression of the world, 
must necessarily come upon New Orleans in the future as in the past; but, as in the past, to be 
heroically borne and overcome, thus giving rise to a still nobler period. 

THE AUTHORS. 
New Orleans, La., 

September, 1915. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



In order to profit by the experience gained in teaching The New Orleans Book during the past 
four years, the Orleans Parish School Board having acquired the copyright to this book appointed 
a Committee on Revision and a Committee of Editors to revise and edit the manuscript preparatory 
to printing a second edition. These Committees were composed as follows: 

Committee on Revision : Mrs. Ellen W. Gardner, Miss Stella Herron, Miss Caroline Pfaff, 
Miss Sadie Vickers, Miss Ray Abrams, Miss Augustine Aurianne, and Miss Josephine Thomas. 

Committee of Editors : Mr. Henrv M. Gill, City Librarian, Pres. A. B. Dinwiddie, President 
Tulane University, and Mr. Norman Walker, Editor, Times-Picavune. 

The Board extends to the members of these Committees its heartiest appreciation of their in- 
valuable work and feels confident that the book will serve its purpose of disseminating facts con- 
cerning New Orleans, the City of Opportunity. 

ORLEANS PARISH SCHOOL BOARD. 
New Orleans, La., 

August, 1919. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter. , Page. 

I. Geographical Conditions 1 

II. History of New Orleans 7 

III. Drainage — Sewerage — Filter Plant 43 

IV. Health Conditions 47 

V. Systems of Communication 59 

VI. Trade 65 

VII. Industries _ 78 

VIII. Manufactures 90 

IX. Foodstuffs 93 

X. Professions — Trades 100 

XI. Charitable Institutions 106 

XII. Education 109 

XIII. Literature of New Orleans 124 

XIV. People— Customs 130 

XV. City Government 137 

XVI. City Beautiful 145 

Supplement. Government of Louisiana I. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



The Flags Frontispiece 



Page. 
Cross Section Showing Land-Slope from the 

River to the Lake _.. 2 

Scene in Third District Showing Levee Con- 
struction; Material Being Brought on 

Cars 3 

Scene in Third District Showing Levee Con- 
struction Mud Pumped Through Ele- 
vated Sluices 3 

Map of Louisiana 7 

La Salle 8 

Louis XIV 8 

Pierre Le Moyno dTberville 9 

Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville 10 

John Law _ _ 1 1 

Due d'Orleans _ 11 

Map of 1728 11 

Marquis de Vaudreuil 12 

Map of New Orleans, 1763 13 

Charles III. of Spain _ 14 

Louis XV 14 

Don Antonio de Ulloa _ 14 

Don Alexandre O'Reilly _ 15 

Bernado Galvez 15 

Plan of the Great Conflagration 16 

Baron de Carondelet _ 16 

Don Andres Almonaster Y Roxas 16 

Cabildo as It Appears Today 17 

View of the Interior of the Cabildo 17 

View of the Corridor of the Cabildo 17 

Etienne de Bore „ 18 

A Flatboat 18 

Map of New Orleans 19 

Napoleon Bonaparte 21 

Laussat _ „ „ 22 

Thomas Jefferson „ 22 

Copy of Jefferson's Proclamation for a Special 
Session of Congress to Ratify the Pur- 
chase of Louisiana from France 22 

Cession of Louisiana to the United States 23 

A View of New Orleans from the Plantation... 23 

Gov. W. C. C. Claiborne _ 24 

Jean and Pierre Lafitte and Dominique You... 25 

Andrew Jackson 26 

A General Map of the Seat of War in Louisi- 
ana and West Florida _ 27 

General Jacques Villere 27 

Battle Monument 28 

Map of New Orleans, 1815 29 

View, as It Appears Today, of the Bank of 
Louisiana Building, Corner of Royal and 

Conti Streets, Erected in 1826 30 

The Tallulah, Clipper Engaged in Slave Trade 

to New Orleans 30 

Progress of the Growth of New Orleans 

(Map) 31 

United States Mint 32 

Jackson Square as It Appeared in 1838 32 

Street Railroad Car in 1838 32 



Page. 

Map of Louisiana, 1849 33 

Canal Street, Royal to Bourbon, 1846 ... 33 

Orleans Alley 34 

Typical Homes in the Vieux Carre, Erected 
During the First Half of the Nineteenth 

Century 34 

Courtyard in Vieux Carre 35 

First St. Charles Hotel 35 

Second St. Louis Hotel 35 

Old St. Charles Theatre 36 

French Opez-a House, Erected in 1859 36 

James H. Caldwell 37 

Monument in Memory of Members of White 
League, Who Fell in Conflict on Septem- 
ber 14, 1874 38 

Harbor of New Orleans, 1873 38 

Central Building, Cotton Centennial Exposi- 
tion „ 39 

Old Style Steamboat Landing 40 

Ships at the Wharves 41 

Jackson Square as It Is Today 42 

Main Waterworks Pumping Station and 

Drainage Power House No. 2 44 

View Showing Napoleon Avenue Drainage 

Canal in Course of Construction 45 

French Market Before Renovation 52 

French Market After Renovation 53 

Malaria Chart 54 

Panorama View of Commercial Section, 

Viewed from Top of City Hall 58 

United States Post Office ■ 59 

Mule Traction 63 

Latest Model of Electric Car in Use in New 

Orleans _ 64 

Map of New Orleans Harbor, Louisiana Ave- 
nue to Alvar Street 66 

Drydocks and United States Government 

Landings 68 

Banana Conveyors 69 

Map Showing Drainage System of Mississippi 

River 70 

Ferrying Cars Across the River 73 

Import Coffee 75 

Custom House 76 

Panoramic View of the Harbor _ 77 

New Orleans Cotton Exchange 78 

Cotton Warehouses and Terminal 79 

Corn Crop on Reclaimed Land 80 

Cane Crop on Reclaimed Land 81 

Chalmette Sugar Refinery 82 

Irrigation Pumping Plant in West Louisiana... 83 
Preparation of Soil for Rice Planting in West 

Louisiana 83 

Cypress Swamp 85 

Tons of Sulphur Ready for Shipment 87 

Mining Salt Underground _ 88 

Jennings Oil Field 89 

Otis Mahogany Plant 91 



ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. 



Page. Page. 

Products of a Truck Farm on Reclaimed Land 93 New Orleans Public Library 122 

Orange Grove _ 95 Charles Gayarre '. 125 

Loading Oysters on a Transport 96 Alcee Fortier _ 127 

New Orleans Court Building 101 Carnival Pageant in Canal Street _ 132 

Charity Hospital 106 McDonogh Monument in Lafayette Square 134 

JSSL2rtSL== Jfc St. Roch's Chapel : 135 



Margaret's Monument 107 

Three Homes of the Ursulines 109 



City Hall 138 



Warren Easton High School ZIZZZI 114 Ddgado Art Museum 150 

McDonogh No. 14 115 0aks m Audubon Park 151 

Gibson Hall, Tulane Campus "... IIIIZZZ 117 Creosoted Wood Block Pavement 153 

Newcomb College 118 Seal of the State of Louisiana XI. 

Loyola University 119 Map of New Orleans Insert 



CHAPTER I. 



Geographical Conditions. 



SECTION 1. LOCATION OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Location. Bienville selected the present site 
of New Orleans for his capital, because he real- 
ized that one day his little settlement would 
grow into a great and prosperous city through 
the advantages offered by the Mississippi and 
the agricultural possibilities of the country. 
Almost a hundred years later, Jefferson secured 
Louisiana for the United States. His principal 
object was the possession of New Orleans, 
which he predicted would become the commer- 
cial metropolis of the South. 

New Orleans, Louisiana, is in the south cen- 
tral part of the United States, 29 degrees, 56 
minutes, 59 seconds North Latitude, 90 de- 
grees, 4 minutes, 9 seconds West Longitude. 
Although one hundred ten miles from the Gulf 
of Mexico, New Orleans is a seaport, for it is 



situated on the Mississippi Eiver, which can 
float at this point the largest sea-going vessels. 

Advantages of Location. The Mississippi 
River, with its tributaries, offers seventeen 
thousand six hundred fifty miles of naviga- 
ble waterway, extending through twenty-two 
states. Because of its location, New Orleans 
should be the center of trade between the Mis- 
sissippi Valley and Central and South American 
countries. The Panama Canal brings a large 
portion of the oriental commerce through this 
port. The prosperity of a city depends not only 
upon its commercial facilities, but also upon the 
resources of the adjacent region. In this re- 
spect, New Orleans, the gateway of the fertile 
Mississippi Valley, is equalled by few cities. 



SECTION 2. EXTENT OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Extent. The corporate limits of New Orleans 
embrace the whole of Orleans Parish, an area of 
one hundred ninety-six square miles. There are 
only a few cities in the United States that cover 
more territory. The boundary line of Orleans 
Parish is very irregular, but it may be given ap- 
proximately as Lake Pontchartrain on the 
north, the Rigolets separating Orleans from 



St. Tammany Parish on the north, Lake Borgne 
on the east and south, St. Bernard Parish on the 
cast and south, the Mississippi River on the 
south, with the exception of Algiers, which is 
across the river, and Jefferson Parish on the 
west. Part of Orleans Parish extends over the 
river, embracing Algiers and the surrounding 
districts. 



SECTION 3. TOPOGRAPHY. 



Topography. The topography of this re- 
gion has undergone great changes. Tins has 
been proven by a study of the soil and by his- 
toric records. Even in the memory of the 
present generation, there were swamps where 
now stand beautiful residences. These changes 



have been largely effected by the Mississippi, to 
which mighty agency New Orleans owes its 
very existence. Ages ago, an arm of the Gulf 
of Mexico reached to the Ohio River. In this 
hay tlie river deposited its sediment until not 
only the bay, but much of the Gulf, was filled. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



As the Mississippi River carries hundreds of 
millions of tons of silt into the Gulf every year, 
this process of land building continues. Even 
after the land was raised above the sea-level, 



highest portions now have an elevation of 
fifteen feet; but, in some places, the city is 
slightly below Gulf level. There is a gradual 
slope back from the river front, where the land 




Cross Section Showing Land-slope from the River to the Lake. 



the river did not cease its great work. Swollen 
by tbe floods and melting snows along its upper 
course, it would annually overflow this region, 
leaving a deposit of alluvium 

Thus, year by year, until the levees shut out 
the floods, New Orleans was built up. Accord- 
ing to the records of George G. Earl, Superin- 
tendent of the Sewerage and Water Board, the 



is highest, and a lesser slope back from the lake 
shore. A slight elevation extends across the 
city along Metairie Ridge, City Park, and 
Gentilly Terrace. The section extending be- 
tween Lakes Borgne and Pontchartrain as far 
as the Rigolets is almost entirely swamp land. 
Small tracts of this have been reclaimed for 
market gardens. 



SECTION 4. SOIL FORMATION. 



Soil Formation. The causes of these slopes 
and ridges will be understood by studying the 
work of rivers in building up their flood plains. 
A swiftly flowing river can carry a large 
amount of detritus, but when the current is 
checked it is forced to drop its burden. The 
greatest check to the current of a river over- 
flowing its flood plains occurs as it leaves 
its channels; consequently, the heaviest and 
coarsest sediment is deposited there. The river 
banks are thus built higher by each flood and a 
system of natural levees is produced. The finer 
silt is carried farther before being released. 
This causes a marked difference in the forma- 
tion and composition of front and back lands 
along a river. The formation of the land along 
the bayous is similar to that along the river; 
it is high near the streams and slopes back into 
lowlands or swamps. This accounts for the 
ridges along Bayou St. John and Bayou 



Sauvage. The course of a former outlet of the 
Mississippi River is marked by the ridge along 
Metairie and Gentilly Terrace. 

Present Work of the River. Levees restrain 
the flood waters; but the river has not ceased its 
work. The current grows sluggish along the 
inner curve of the river, and here a bank or 
"batture" is built up outside the levee. The 
current is correspondingly swift along an outer 
curve, where it wears away the bank. This is 
occurring at Carrollton Bend and at Greenville 
Bend (between Westwego and Carrollton). The 
batture from Felicity Street to belov# Canal 
Street has increased so much that the levee has 
been moved to take in the newly formed land. 
Within the history of New Orleans, the site of 
the present Customhouse was on the river front 
and Tchoupitoulas Street was the highroad 
along the bank. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 5. INUNDATIONS. 



Causes of Inundations. New Orleans has 
suffered from overflows of the Mississippi and 
Lake Pontchartrain. Floods from Lake Pont- 
chartrain have resulted from two causes: (1) 
-Backwater from crevasses along the river filled 



Lake Pontchartrain; this water, when pre- 
vented by prevailing southeast winds from 
reaching the Gulf, flooded the region about the 
lake. (2) The same result was produced when 
violent storms piled up the waters of the lake. 



SECTION 6. LEVEES. 



Along the River. Levees of great size and 
strength have been built along the Mississippi's 
course through the State of Louisiana. No- 
where in the world, not even in Holland, where 
the people hold back the waters of the sea, are 
the levees as large as those built by the Parish 
of Orleans to check the encroachments of the 
'.'Father of Waters." 

Size and Length. The base of these great 
levees is as thick through as a city block, and 



high-water mark at the river front. The 
Orleans Levee Board maintains twelve miles 
of levee on the left or east bank of the river 
and over thirteen miles on the right or west 
bank, besides the fifty-two miles of rear protec- 
tion levees. 

Bank Protection. The levees are protected 
from erosion, or wearing, by wooden revet- 
ments or by a coating of concrete. Willow mat- 
tresses, sunk below the surface of the water, 





Scene in Third District showing levee construction, 
mud pumped through elevated sluices. 



Scene in Third District showing levee cor 
material being brought on cars. 



struction. 



in places the crown or top is fifty feet wide and 
five feet above the highest water ever recorded 
at New Orleans. The largest levees are along 
Carrollton Bend, called Carrollton Reach Levee, 
and in front of the Third District. The great 
size of these levees is easily realized because of 
the unobstructed view. There are levees of al- 
most the same height before the business sec- 
tion, but the slope is so gradual it is scarcely 
perceptible. The levee at Canal Street com- 
mences at the Louisville and Nashville depot 
and slopes up until it is two to three feet above 



prevent the caving of levees along banks where 
the current washes with greater force. The 
work of bank protection is relegated to the 
United States Government. From 1907 up to 
date, the Government has expended over a mil- 
lion dollars in this character of work. 

Construction of Levees. The Orleans Levee 
Board is charged with the construction, repair, 
supervision, and maintenance of all levees in the 
Parish of Orleans. The method of construction 
depends largely upon the facilities at hand for 
obtaining the necessary earth to build the levee. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Frequently the dirt is brought on barges, or in 
cars, if there are railroad tracks near. Great 
cranes unload the barges or cars and place the 
dirt in the required position. The force of run- 
ning water is sometimes applied to levee con- 
struction. The material used to build the levee 
is shot through long elevated sluices by a con- 
tinuous stream, and the mud thus produced is 
deposited through troughs at regular distances 
along the line of construction. Low dams hold 
this slush within a certain area, where, after the 
water has drained off, the dirt is shaped into a 
levee. Where the use of machinery is not prac- 
ticable, the dirt has to be hauled by mules or 
wheeled in barrows; and the levees have to be 
built with wheel and drag scrapers. 

Protection Levees. Levees are maintained 
along the lake shore, the parish lines, the canal 
banks, and Bayou St. John, as well as along the 
river front. The purpose of protection levees is 
to. prevent backwater from crevasses or lake 



floods from entering the city. These levees are 
not nearly so high as those along the river, but 
they aggregate about fifty-two miles in length. 

Swamp Reclamation. Since the construction 
of levees that afford effectual protection to the 
city, attention lias been directed towards re- 
clamation of swamp lands. Cypress trees and 
tangled undergrowth once covered an extensive 
area of marsh where streets are now laid out 
and houses are being built. Most of the reclama- 
tion has been effected at the city's expense by 
means of the drainage canals. The entire area 
from People's Avenue to the New Basin Canal 
and from the river to the lake is now drained. 
Land companies have reclaimed many sections 
in, and near, New Orleans. 

Other reclamation projects are now being 
considered and, when completed, all of the 
swamp lands in the rear of the city will be re- 
claimed by drainage canals and levees. 



SECTION 7. CLIMATE. 



Conditions that Affect Climate in New Or- 
leans. The climate of New Orleans is affected 
by (1) latitude, (2) nearness to large bodies of 
water, (3) direction of prevailing winds, (4) 
levelness of the surrounding country. 

Latitude. New Orleans is about seven de- 
grees north of the torrid zone. The thirtieth 
parallel of latitude crosses Africa and Arabia 
through burning deserts, but New Orleans, at 
the same distance from the equator, has mild 
and pleasant summers. 

Nearness to Large Bodies of Water. Re- 
gions adjacent to large expanses of water are 
less subject to extremes of temperature than 
inland sections, because water neither heats 
nor cools as rapidly as land. The extensive 
water surface formed by the network of bayous 
and lakes which indent the coast of Louisiana 
materially affects the climate. Especially is 
this true in New Orleans, which is made almost 
an island by Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne, 
and the Mississippi River. The warm Gulf 
Stream lessens the severity of winter. 

Direction of Prevailing Winds. For almost 
six months of the year the city is swept by 



southeasterly winds from the Gulf. These are 
saturated with moisture, which lessens the in- 
tensity of the sun's rays by day and prevents 
rapid radiation by night. During the winter 
months, the prevailing winds are from the north 
and northeast, but, having to cross Lake Pont- 
chartrain, they are tempered before reaching 
New Orleans. The atmosphere, though laden 
with moisture, is not heavy nor oppressive. 
Breezes from the Gulf impart a fresh and vigor- 
ous tone during the summer and moderate the 
cold in winter. 

Levelness of the Surrounding Country. 
There are no heights of land in the vicinity of 
New Orleans to obstruct the winds or prevent 
the distribution of moisture. 

Temperature. The summers are long, but 
the maximum temperature never exceeds and 
seldom equals that of inland cities much farther 
north. The mean temperature for July and 
August, the hottest months of the year, ob- 
tained from records extending over a period of 
forty-two years, is 82 degrees. Excessive heat 
is rare and heat prostrations are few. On the 
other hand, the winters are exceedingly mild. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



There is ice on an average of less than four 
times a year, and the ground seldom freezes. 
All hut the most delicate plants can remain out 
of doors during the winter with only a cover- 
ing of burlap or paper to protecl them from 
frost. The lowest temperature ever recorded 
at Xew Orleans did not descend to zero, being 
seven degrees above zero on February 13, 1899. 
The season of greatest cold occurs during De- 
cember and January. 

Rainfall and Moisture. There is no distinc- 
tive rainy season in Xew Orleans, as many out- 
siders suppose. The average rainfall is about 
equal for all the months of the year, increasing 
slightly during the summer. The inhabitants 
appreciate this provision of nature, for rainy 



days are few, and frequent showers serve to 
cool the atmosphere. Spring and autumn, hav- 
ing very moderate rainfall, are always pleasant 
seasons. The annua] monthly rainfall averages 
four and five-tenths inches. 

Healthfulness. Few places have a more uni- 
formly delightful climate than New Orleans. 
Residents of Xew Orleans have no need to seek 
mountain and seashore resorts in summer, for 
breezes from the gulf and lake keep their own 
city pleasant dining the summer months, while 
strangers flock to the Southern metropolis to 
enjoy the winters, where trees are green and 
flowers bloom, where outdoor life is uninter- 
rupted and fires may be dispensed with many 
days in the season. 



SECTION 8. WEATHER BUREAU. 



Weather Bureau. Climate exerts so much 
influence over the lives, habits, and occupations 
of people that the United States Government 
has established the Weather Bureau under the 
Department of Agriculture. The work of this 
Bureau is to study the rise and fall of tempera- 
ture, the direction and velocity of the wind, the 
amount of rainfall, and the barometric pressure, 
in order to anticipate unusual weather condi- 
tions, and to give information and warning with 
regards to floods. 

New Orleans Station. There is a station in 
Xew Orleans fully equipped for making ob- 
servations and forecasts. The offices are lo- 
cated in the Post Office building. 

( Hiservations of local weather conditions are 
taken twice daily at about two hundred ob- 
serving stations in the United States. Trained 
observers, using delicate instruments, deter- 
mine weather changes with utmost accuracy. 
Complete telegraphic reports are immediately 
sent to Washington, District of Columbia, 
where expert forecasters determine the weather 
conditions that may he expected to prevail dur- 
ing the next thirty-six to forty-eight hours. 
Reports are also sent to some of the larger sta- 
tions, where similar calculations are made for 
their respective vicinities. 

Distribution of Forecasts. "Within two hours 
after the morning observations have been 



taken, the forecasts are telegraphed from the 
forecast stations to nearly two thousand dis- 
tributing points. Countless individuals receive 
the daily weather news from these points by 
means of telegraph, telephone, or mail. The 
principal features of current weather conditions 
throughout the country are represented on a 
map. 

Value of Forecasts. The extent to which the 
Weather Bureau, in the collection and publica- 
tion of data and the issue of weather forecasts 
and warnings, affects the daily life of the peo- 
ple is increasing yearly. Warnings of storms 
and hurricanes, issued for the benefit of marine 
interests, arc the most important and valuable. 
These are displayed at more than three hundred 
points along the coasts and along the shores ,,f 
the Great Lakes. So nearly perfect has service 
become that scarcely a storm of marked danger 
to maritime interests has occurred for years For 
which ample warnings have not been issued 
from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. 
West Indian reports are especially valuable, as 
the approach of those destructive hurricanes 
which sweep the Culf and Atlantic coasts from 
July to October can thereby he accurately de- 
termined. 

Change of Temperature Warnings. The 
warnings of those sudden temperature changes 
known as cold waves are probably next in im- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



portance. These warnings, issued from twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours in advance, are scat- 
tered throughout the threatened region by flags 
at Weather Bureau stations, by telegraph, tele- 
phone, and mail service; planters, florists, ship- 
pers and many others profit by this knowledge. 
Fruit, sugar, tobacco, strawberry, and market 
gardening interests are protected by forecasts 
of frost or freezing weather. Savings to grow- 
ers in a limited district through the instrumen- 
tality of such warnings have been estimated at 
thousands of dollars for one cold spell. 

Flood Warnings. The commerce of our 
rivers is greatly aided and lives and property 
in regions subject to overflow are protected by 
the publication of river stages and the issue of 
river and flood forecasts. These are based on 



reports received from about five hundred spe- 
cial river and rainfall stations. The value of 
this service was strongly emphasized during 
a great flood, in March, April, and May, 1912, 
in the Mississippi Basin, which was one of the 
greatest in its history, the stages in some places 
being the highest ever known. Yet, notwith- 
standing the enormous volumes of water, the 
forecasts and warnings were accurately verified 
as to location, stage, and date. 

TOPICS. Section 1. Location of New Orleans; Section 2. 
Extent of New Orleans; Section 3. Topography; Sec- 
tion 4. Soil Formation; Section 5. Inundations; Sec- 
tion 6. Levees; Section 7. Climate; Section 8. 
Weather Bureau. 

REFERENCES: Geological Survey of Louisiana; Waring 
and Cable, History and Present Conditions of New 
Orleans, 1SS0; Report of the Orleans Levee Board; 
Reports of the Weather Bureau, Bulletin Y. 



CHAPTER II. 

History of New Orleans. 

SECTION 1. FRENCH DOMINATION. 



1. LOUISIANA BEFORE 1718. 

Early Explorers of Louisiana. In 1528, 
Pamphilo de Narvaez led an expedition from 
Cuba into Florida. Defeated by tbe Indians, 
he retreated to the coast, only to find bis ships 
gone. Some rude craft were built with which 
lie set sail. After several days' sailing, they 
passed the mouth of a great river and drank of 
its water; but the mighty current dispersed the 
boats, and Narvaez was never heard of again. 
Three boats reached Texas, and, after six years' 
detention by the Indians, several of the sur- 
vivors, led by Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer 
of the expedition, managed to reach a Spanish 
settlement in Mexico. 

Eleven years later, Hernando de Soto sailed 
from Cuba with a large force and landed on the 
coast of Tampa Bay, determined to conquer the 
territory explored by Narvaez. After wander- 
ing through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and 
Mississippi, having his army diminished by In- 
dian attacks and mala- 
ria, he at last, in the 
third year of the expe- 
dition, reached the Mis- 
sissippi River at a 
point slightly south of 
Memphis. Here he 
crossed the river and 
wandered as far west as 
Ihe Red River, but be- 
coming ill he returned 
to 1 1 io banks of the Mis- 
sissippi, where he died. 
His followers, fearing 
attacks of the Indians 
should they hear of 
their leader's death, 
placed his body in the 
trunk of a tree and 
buried him in the great 
river. Unable to reacli 
Mexico by land, they 
built seven brigantines 



and, led by Moscoso, de Soto's successor, one- 
half of his followers finally reached Tampico 
River in Mexico. 

Expeditions of Pere Marquette and La Salle. 
In 1673, having heard from the Indians, of a 
great river that flowed to the west, Pere Mar- 
quette, a Jesuit missionary, set out frdm Quebec 
accompanied by Joliet, a fur-trader, to explore 
and claim it for France. In their birch bark 
canoes they descended the Mississippi River 
as far as the Arkansas; and, convinced that it 
flowed south into the Gulf of Mexico instead of 
west, proceeded to return to Canada. Worn out 
by the hardships, Pere Marquette died before 
the party reached Canada and Joliet proceeded 
alone to bear the news to Quebec. 

Inflamed with the desire of establishing 
France's power through the heart of the conti- 
nent from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that 
of the Mississippi, Robert Cavelier, Sienr de T.a 
Salle started from Canada in August, 1681, and 




MAP OK LOUISIANA 



8 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 




entered the Mississippi on February 6th, 1682. 
When he at length reached the mouth of the 
river, he claimed for France all the land 
watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, 
and named it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV, 
King of France. It was the desire of La Salle to 
establish a chain of forts 
from the St. Lawrence 
to the Mississippi. On 
his return to Canada, he 
went to France, where 
the government fitted 
out an expedition for 
him. In 1684, he landed 
on the coast of Mata- 
gorda "Ray in Texas, 
having failed to find the 
mouth of the Missis- 
si])])!. Soon he lost his 
vessels. In attempting 
to find the Mississippi 
River and reach Canada 
by way of that river, he 
was murdered by one of 
his followers. 

France at the Close 
of the Seventeenth Cen- 
tury. France had risen, through the skill of 
Louis XIV. and the genius of his ministers, to 
the dominance of the affairs of Europe. Though 
an able ruler, Louis, "le Grand," was not far- 
sighted. After the death of Colbert, the great 
financier, lie gave no attention to 
the development of the colonies 
of France, which had been one of 
the cherished plans of the able 
Comptroller. In 1689, Count 
Pontchartrain was entrusted with 
the difficult task of relieving 
France of her financial troubles. 
The treasury was depleted by the 
constant strain upon it caused by 
the continuous European wars, 
the development of the interior of 
France, material encouragement 
given to commerce and manufac- 
tures, erection of such costly louis xiv 
structures as Versailles, the 
Louvre and the Hotel des Invalides. The na- 
tion was groaning under the burden of taxa- 
tion which had been thus necessarily increased. 
In the endeavor to solve this mighty financial 
problem, Pontchartrain, following Colbert's 



policy, turned his attention to the development 
of the colonies. He began with Louisiana, as 
yet a wild, trackless wilderness, extending 
from the Province of Canada on the north and 
the English colonies on the Atlantic, to the 
Rocky Moiintain, the Spanish province of Mex- 
ico, and the Gulf of 
Mexico on the south. 
As the seventeenth cen- 
tury saw the strug- 
gle among the Euro- 
pean nations for con- 
trol of Europe, so the 
eighteenth century was 
to see the conflict for 
supremacy in Xorl h 
America carried on be- 
tween France and Eng- 
land. As a preparation 
fortius struggle, France 
proceeded to establish 
settlements in her ter- 
ritory along the Gulf. 

Early Colonization 

of Louisiana. Pierre Le 

Moyne d 'Iberville was 

chosen in 1698 to settle 

seaman, brave, energetic, 




Louisiana. An able 

inured to hardships by his life on the frontier 
of Canada, Iberville was in every way suited to 
the accomplishment of the difficult task. With 
four ships and two hundred emigrants, he 
crossed the Atlantic, and after 
touching at San Domingo and 
Pensacola, at which latter place 
he found the Spaniards already 
established, anchored in Mobile 
Bay. After cruising among the 
islands along the coast, they 
reached the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi on March 2, 1699, and for 
the first time since La Salle's 
memorable visit, the solemn notes 
of the Te Deuin resounded 
through the dismal swamps. 
Iberville ascended the Missis- 
sippi as far as Red River and 
returned by the same route to 
the mouth of Bayou Manchac, where, leaving 
the others to continue their way by the river, he, 
accompanied by three companions and an In- 
dian guide, entered Bayou Manchac; thence he 
proceeded through Lakes Maurepas, Pontchar- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



train and Borgne, to Mississippi Sound and 
Mobile Bay, which he thus reached before the 
river party. As he had found no spot on the 
river free from the annual overflow, he erected 
a fort on the east side of Biloxi Bay (named 
after an Indian tribe), where is now Ocean 
Springs, and called it Biloxi. Iberville left 
Louisiana in order to take part in the war of 
the Spanish Succession (Queen Anne's War), 
and entrusted the governorship to his younger 
brother, Bienville. A 
settlement was made 
on Mobile Bay, to 
which the capital was 
removed from Biloxi. 
In 1704, a ship bring- 
ing twenty girls for 
the colonists arrived. 
Internal dissensions, 
lack of funds and 
food, low class of im- 
migrants, unfavor- 
able natural condi- 
tions, and fever vis- 
itations, retarded the 
development of the 
colony. 

Louisiana a Pro- 
prietary Colony 1712- 
1717. Louis XIV. be- 
came tired of the bur- 
den of Louisiana, and 
granted the province, 
with exclusive con- 
trol of the trade as 
far north as Illinois, 
to Anthony Crozat, a 
wealthy Paris bank- 
er, who was to give 
the king a share in 
tbe precious metals 
and stones. Cadillac 
was appointed gov- 
ernor by the proprietor, with Bienville as 
lieutenant-governor. A trading post was es- 
tablished at Natchitoches and at a few other 
places, and trade with Mexico was vainly 
sought. Cadillac declared war against the 
powerful Natchez Indians for having murdered 
some Frenchmen, and sent Bienville with a 
small force against tbem. He succeeded by 
strategy in decoying the leaders into his hands 
and forced tbem to accept his terms. De 




PIERRE LE MOYNE d'IBEHVILLI;. 



l'Epinay now became governor, but met with 
no better success than Cadillac. As Crozat had 
parted with a large part of his fortune in the 
endeavor to make money out of Louisiana, he 
decided to restore the king's gift by resigning 
the charter. 

2. PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE COMPANY 
OF THE WEST. 

Company of the West. In 1717, the French 

Government char- 
tered a company to 
take over Louisiana. 
At the bead of this 
company was John 
Law, a Scotchman, 
who, by his bold 
financial sclie m e s, 
had dazzled the re- 
gent, the Due d 'Or- 
leans, and obtained 
great influence in 
the management of 
the government's 
finances. The com- 
pany received a twen- 
ty-five-year charter, 
and promised during 
that period to send 
over six thousand 
white persons and 
three thousand Afri- 
can slaves. There 
were at that time 
seven hundred whites 
in Louisiana. Law's 
great insight into the 
condition of the coun- 
try was displayed in 
his advertising among 
the people of the Low- 
lands of Europe for 
emigrants to Louisi- 
ana; he established a band of these Germans on 
his own land grant on the Arkansas River. 
Bienville was reinstated governor, and imme- 
diately made plans for a settlement on the Mis- 
sissippi River. 

Founding of New Orleans, 1718. Iberville 
had proven the land along the left bank of the 
river, south of Bayou Manchac, to be a real 
island, surrounded by the waters of the Missis- 
sippi, Bayou Manchac, the three lakes, and the 



10 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Gulf of Mexico. Bienville chose for the site of 
his settlement an elevation on this island one 
hundred ten miles from the river's mouth, be- 
tween the head of Bayou St. John and the river. 
'Phis location presented many advantages over 
the surrounding country; the land was higher; 
it was accessible by two waterways, by the Mis- 
sissippi and by the lakes and Bayou St. John; 
it was well known to the Indians of that dis- 
trict as the home of the Houma Indians, hence 
could be a good In- 
dian trading post. 
Even though this 
land was elevated 
above the rest of the 
country, it was sub- 
ject to frequent over- 
Hows, and was then 
scarcely more than a 
swamp presenting 
elevations, and had 
all the disadvantages 
of an uncleared low- 
land in a semi-tropi- 
cal climate. To this 
spot, in 1718, Bien- 
ville sent the Sieur le 
Blond de la Tour and 
fifty men to clear the 
undergrowth and lay 
out the city. De la 
Tour, assisted by 
Pauger, arranged the 
settlement in the 
shape of a rectangle 
lacing the river, and 
in the middle marked 
off a square to be 
used as a Place 
d'Armes, to the rear 
of this to be the 
church, school and 
government house. 
Barracks and a few huts were erected, and to 
this crude settlement Bienville gave the name 
of La Nouvelle Orleans in honor of the Regent, 
the Due d 'Orleans. Storms and fever visita- 
tions, prevented the immediate growth of the 
little settlement. 

New Orleans, the Capital, 1722. When Bien- 
ville had requested that New Orleans be made 
the capita] of the colony, the directors refused, 
saying it could not be safely reached by large 




JEAN BAPTISTE LE MOYNE DE BIENVILLE. 



vessels. In 1722, Bienville had his chief en- 
gineer, Pauger, examine the mouths of the Mis- 
sissippi; he reported eighteen feet of water in 
southeast pass, and suggested that if dikes were 
built along this pass and the others closed, the 
current would, by its own power, keep sand out 
of this pass. It was in accordance with this 
plan that, a century and a half later, Eads con- 
structed the jetties. Bienville had one of his 
vessels taken through the pass of the Balize. 

The directors, on re- 
ceiving the reports of 
these investigations, 
yielded to Bienville 
and New Orleans was 
made the capital. Ac- 
cording to Pere Char- 
levoix, who visited 
New Orleans in this 
year, the town con- 
sisted of a hundred 
disorderly, barrack- 
like buildings, a 
wooden storehouse, 
and two or three 
homes that would not 
ornament a French 
village; nevertheless, 
he foresaw a great 
future for this city, 
found its location 
superior to that of 
Rome and Paris, and 
declared it would be 
' ' one day — and per- 
haps that day is not 
far distant — an opu- 
lent city and the me- 
tropolis of a great 
and rich colony." 
Three years previous, 
the first negro slaves 
had been introduced, 
five hundred in number. The position of New 
Orleans near the mouth of the river controlled 
the southern entrance to the whole country be- 
tween the Alleghenies and the Rockies, for the 
province of Louisiana was then only accessible 
by the rivers draining its vast extent, all of 
which contributed their waters to the Missis- 
sippi long before it reached the point opposite 
La Nouvelle Orleans. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



11 



Failure of Law's Bank. Law's great bank 
in Pari* failed at this time, ruining the majority 
of those connected with him. The poor Germans 
whom he had located on the banks of the 
Arkansas managed to reach New Orleans, and 
there prayed Bienville to send them back to 
their homes. He persuaded them to settle along 
the river above the city. Tims was formed the 
nucleus of the German settlement on the banks 
of the Mississippi which is to this day called 

German Coast. 

As slaves continued 
to be received, laws tad 
to be made for their 
governance; Bienville 
drew up the Black 
Code, a set of laws 
which has been equally 
well praised and 
blamed. About the 
most important provi- 
sion was that forbid- 
ding the intermarriage 
of the black and while 
enforced in Louisiana, 
and Perrier ap- 




JOHN LAW. 



races, which is still 
Bienville was now recalled 
pointed to succeed him. 

Governorship of Perrier. Perrier accom- 
plished many improvements. He had a levee 
eighteen feet wide and nine hundred feet long 
constructed in front of New Orleans and con- 
tinued for eighteen miles above and below the 
city. The inhabitants furnished their slaves 
to do the work and the government fed them 
while they were so 
engaged. To protect 
the city against In- 
dian inroads, a stock- 
ade with eight little 
forts w r a s erected. 
The first sanitary 
measure was now un- 
dertaken, namely, as 
Perrier termed i t , 
ventilating the city 
by clearing the forest 
between the city and 
Lake Pontchartrain ; 
lack of funds and 
means in-evented its 
completion. Taxa- 
tion was unknown; 
hence the only rev- 




DUC D'ORLEANS. 



I 

at CMirmis 

4 U t, r . 

Mb MM 


•■ 
■"'.- 

ajjjj jjjj 
jjjjjjjjj 

_! J . J J iJUJ _1 _J 

...J J JdtLJUJJ _ 





MAP OF 1728. 



enues available for public improvements were 
those furnished by the home government. 

Need of Women. There were few women 
of good character in the colony; consequently 
many of the better settlers, missing their home- 
life in France, desired to return. It thus be 
came evident that, if the settlement were to he 
permanent, the men must have good wives to 
make homes for them. An experiment in In- 
Indian wives was 
tried ; but as one 
dusky bride, on 
returning from 
France, where her 
m a r r i a g e to a 
French officer had 
been performed at 
court with g r e a t 
pomp, grew tired 
of civilization and, 
having sought again 
the haunts of her 
tribe, was influenced 
by them to betray 
her husband's post, it was deemed an unwise 
innovation. When Bienville left the colony, 
in 1724, he promised to send a band of good 
women over as soon as possible. In 1727, the 
"Casket Girls" (Filles a la cassette), so called 
because of each having received a box contain- 
ing her trousseau, arrived and were placed un- 
der the care of the Ursulines until they should 
be married. 

Education. In 1726, Bienville sold to a 

company of Jesuits a 
plantation which, by 
later extensions, up to 
1745, occupied about 
the area of the pres- 
ent First District. 
Here, in 1727, the 
Jesuits established a 
church and mission 
center. Their planta- 
tion became the first 
agricultural school of 
Louisiana, for here 
they introduced the 
cultivation of the 
orange, fig, sugar 
cane (1751), indigo 
plant, and myrtle, 
from which was ob- 



12 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



tained myrtle wax; these became staple props 
and the industry and enterprise of the Fathers 
a good example to the other colonists. The 
order was suppressed through political reasons 
in 1 7(i."> and their great plantation confiscated 
by the king of Spain and sold for ahout one 
hundred eighty thousand dollars. 

A convent of Capuchins was established ad- 
joining the church, of which they took charge, 
besides conducting the regular parish school. 
The boys, however, had to he sent to France for 
a good education. 

The idrls of New < >rleans were more fortu- 
nate, for. in 1727. Bienville had induced the 
(Jrsuline Nuns to establish a convent there. 
They were first located in Bienville's former 
home, until their convent on Chartres and Ursu- 
line Streets was completed in 1730; this build- 
ing is the oldest in the United States, west of 
the Alleghenies, and the school conducted by 
the sisters was the first in the United States to 
be opened for girls. 

Life in New Orleans in 1730. The city ex- 
vended from Bienville to Ursuline Streets, and 
from the river to Dauphine Street. The Place 
d 'Amies was located in the central square 
facing ill,. riv».r, and to the rear of it was the 
church and convent of the Capuchins; farther 
down, on what are now Hospital and Ursuline 
Streets, were the convent of the Ursulines, the 
hospital, and barracks; the homes of the colo- 
nists clustered ahout the Place d'Armes and 
these principal buildings; the homes were built 
of wood and soft brick, and. like all pioneer 
homes, presented little comfort. Greased paper 
or linen was used in the windows instead of 
ula<s. and torches or the ill-smelling myrtle wax 
candle furnished artificial light. Nevertheless, 
according to the letters of Sister Madeleine 
Hachard, an Ursuline nun, to her family in 
France, the people dressed, had the same man- 
ner- and partook of the same foods as the 
people in France. Sister Madeleine wrote that 
the ladies knew how to paint and rouge as did 
those in France, and that their manners Avere 
as charming: she was much surprised to enjoy 
cafe au lait and chocolate for breakfast. There 
were now live thousand whites and two thou- 
sand blacks in the colony; the white population 
consisted of French, Germans, and Canadians; 
I lie blacks were negroes from Africa. 

Natchez War. The greed of the French com- 
mander at Fort Rosalie in Mississippi, for the 



best lands, had urged him to seize the White 
Apple village from the Natchez. As a result, 
the Indians fell upon the fort and settlement 
and massacred two hundred men, taking the 
women and children into captivity. Perrier 
lit ted out an expedition and marched against 
them; hut they managed to escape by strategy. 
They took their last stand at Sicily Island in the 
northern section of the state; here, after being 
forced to give up their white captives, the 
greater number of the braves escaped to the 
Chickasaws. In consequence of this drain upon 
its funds, the Company of the West gave up its 
charter. Louisiana again became a royal col- 
ony. Perrier was recalled and Bienville reap- 
pointed as governor. 

3. NEW ORLEANS, 1731- '63. 

Negro Insurrection, 1732. In the attempt to 
put down the Natchez, the Louisianians had 
even armed and trained their negro slaves. The 
negroes then rose in revolt. The insurrection 
was not suppressed until the leaders had been 
put to death — the women on the gallows, and 
the men on the wheel. The heads of the men 
were put on posts at each end of the town to 
arouse fear in probable future insurrectionists. 

Chickasaw War. Bienville saw the neces- 
sity of defeating the Chickasaws, the harborers 
of the Natchez warriors, if peace were to be re- 
stored in Louisiana. In 1736, he marched 
against them in northern Mississippi. Through 
English help, they were able to defeat Bien- 
ville's army, taking many captives; these poor 
unfortunates were burned by the Indians as 
Bienville withdrew the remnant of his army. He 
fitted out another expedition, which was even 
more overwhelmingly defeated. Repulsed by 
the Indians and 
worn out by the 
trials and hardships 
of the colony, the 
Father of Louisiana 
asked to be recalled. 
His request was 
granted and the 
Marquis de Vau- 
dreuil, "le grand 
Marquis," was ap- 
pointed to succeed 

mm. MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL. 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



13 



Improvements. De Vaudreuil's rule was a 
period of development. The levees, so neces- 
sary to the good of the country, were extended 
and made better. In 1737, Jean Louis, a poor 
sailor, laid the foundation of one of the city's 
greatest institutions — the Charity Hospital. Its 
first quarters were in a building on Rampart 
Street, between St. Louis and Toulouse. Eng- 
lish occupation of the Ohio Valley drove out 
many of the French settlers, who then flocked 
to New Orleans. This sudden influx of people 
forced the government to erect more commodi- 
ous barracks in the lower part of the city by 
the liver front, where is now Barracks Street. 
Sixty more girls of good character were sent 
over in the care of the Ursulines. New Orleans 
became the trade center of the colony. Hides, 
tobacco, indigo, rice, and a little cotton and 
sugar were sent to her by the other sections of 
Louisiana for export. Cotton was introduced in 
174ii. A.s a slave could pick not more than six 
pounds a day, it was not extensively raised until 
after Whitney's invention of the gin, when, 
with the gin, a negro might clean a thousand 
pounds a day. The Jesuits brought in sugar- 
cane in 1751 from San Domingo and cultivated 
it on their plantation. A few years later, Du- 
breuil devoted a large plantation to the culti- 
vation of sugar-cane, building thereon the first 
sugar mill in Louisiana; his plantation was 
located where Esplanade Avenue is to-day. 
The method of granulating was unknown; the 
sugar produced was hard, sticky, gluey; tafia, 
a drink resembling rum, was made from it. 
The export of this sugar to France was at- 
tempted in 17(3."), but was given up owing to a 
large portion of it having leaked out of the 
barrels. 

Obstacles to Progress. One of the great ' 
hindrances to progress was the unstable con- 
dition of the currency, which was changed three 
times during this period; finally the king and 
Council of State of France interfered and jmt a 
stop to changes in the currency. Lack of money 
also militated against the colony's advance. 
The monopoly system, by which the government 
gave or sold to an individual or company the 
sole right to operate an industry, is of its very 
nature detrimental to the good of a community. 
The Louisiana government not only supported 
monopolies, but even arbitrarily regulated the 
price at which produce, such as tobacco, rice, 
etc., should be sold. Again, the people had no 



voice in their government; frequently laws and 
regulations were formulated in France by peo- 
ple ignorant of the conditions in Louisiana. 

Fourth French and Indian War. France and 
England, during these years, were approaching 
their final struggle for commercial, naval and 
colonial supremacy. Rivals in Europe, India 
and America, the two nations, for over half a 
century, had kept the world of that day in a 
constant state of war. In North America, 
France had established her power in Canada 
and Louisiana, and, by a system of forts ex- 
tending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to 
that of the Mississippi, had sought to make her 
position invulnerable; her last step in that 
direction had been the erection of Fort Du- 
quesne at the juncture of the Alleghany and 
Monongahela Rivers, where they unite to form 
the Ohio River. This position at the head of 
the Ohio Valley might be said to be the key to 
the whole system of French Forts. The English 
had established their control on the Atlantic 
coast from Maine to Florida. The Virginians 
realized the importance of Fort Duquesne and 
sent Major George Washington to dislodge the 
French. He failed, and a British army led by 
Braddock against it in 1755 met with crushing 
defeat. The war that then began is known in 
Europe as the Seven Years' War. At first, vic- 
tory favored the French; but in 1757, William 
Pitt, becoming Prime Minister of England, 
changed the tide of victory to the English side. 



PLAN BT FROJBT, 

NOlVKI.l.K Olil.KANS. 

ITM. 




MAP OF SEW ORLEAN- 



14 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



The war was practically ended by the surrender 
of Quebec and Montreal to the English; the 
former in 1759, and the latter in 1760. Peace 
was not concluded until 1763, when a treaty 
was signed in Paris. By this treaty, France 
ceded to England Canada, Cape Breton Island, 
and Louisiana as far west as the Mississippi 
River, excepting the Isle of Orleans. England 
had captured Manila and Havana from the 
Spaniards, but returned them on Spain ceding 
Florida to her. 

Government Under French Rule. The Lou- 
isiana province was governed by a Superior 
Council, composed originally of two members, 
namely, the governor and commissary. Gradu- 
ally the membership was extended to twelve 
persons. This council was the supreme legis- 
lative and judicial body in the colony. That 
does not mean that all laws for Louisiana were 
made in the colony; many were made in 
France, and all others had, of course, to 
accord with French 
law. ' ' The Custom 
of Paris ' ' became the 
basis of colonial law. 
Louisiana was di- 
vided into nine dis- 
tricts, each having a 
commandant and 
judge, but these were 
subject to the Superi- 
or Council. The peo- 
ple, unlike the Eng- 
lish colonists, took no 
part in their own gov- 
ernment; however, on 
the whole, consider- 
ing the times, the col- 




CHARLES III OF SPAIN. 



ony was governed well and liberally. There 
was broader religious toleration in Louisiana 
than in most of the English colonies along the 
Atlantic coast. 

Changing Ownership. In 1763, the Treaty 
of Paris was concluded between France and 
England; by this treaty, England gained all the 
territory east of the Mississippi, except the Isle 
of Orleans. On November 3, 1762, Louis XV. 
had, by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso, given 
all Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, and the 
Isle of Orleans to his cousin, Charles III. of 
Spain. Governor Kerlerec, the successor of 
Vaudreuil, had been recalled to France, and, on 
charge of having misappropriated the colony's 
funds, had been thrown into the Bastile. d'Ab- 
badie then became governor. It was not until 
October, 1764, that the French king notified the 
governor of the transfer of Louisiana, near- 
ly two years previous, to Spain, and or- 
dered him to surrender Louisiana to accredited 

Spanish commission- 
ers when they should 
present themselves. 
The people heard 
the tidings with 
dismay, and could 
not be convinced 
that it was final. 
A convention as- 
sembled in New Or- 
leans and sent Jean 
Milhet, one of the 
wealthiest merchants, 
with a petition to the 
king entreating him 
to take them back 
under French control. 





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LOUIS XV. 



SECTION 2. SPANISH DOMINATION. 



1. MANIFESTATION OF THE 
SPIRIT OF LIBERTY, 1766- 
1768. 

Don Antonio de Ulloa. Four 
years after the cession of Louisiana 
to Spain, the Spanish government 
sent over Don Antonio de Ulloa as 
governor of the province. Ulloa 
was a distinguished scientist, but, 
by his lack of judgment and tact, 
unfitted to occupy his new position. 
He wrote from Havana to Aubry, 




DON ANTONIO DE ULLOA. 



successor of d'Abadie, of his ap- 
pointment as governor, and of his 
early arrival in Louisiana; yet, 
when he reached New Orleans, he 
refused to present his credentials, 
and removed neither the French of- 
ficials nor the French flag. Louisi- 
aua had a joint Spanish and French 
government. For seven months 
Ulloa absented himself from the 
city to await at the Balize for the 
coming of his Peruvian bride. 
Among the few beneficial acts of 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



15 



this governor were his trade regulations. He 
ordered the merchants not to sell their goods 
until "just and intelligent persons" had in- 
spected them and listed the prices. 

Conspiracy of October, 1768. The mer- 
chants called upon the Superior Council to pre- 
vent the enforcement of these regulations. Led 
by Lafreniere, Doucet, the Milhets and others, 
a conspiracy was formed for the expulsion of 
Ulloa and the seizure of the city. Noyan and 
Villere, with their followers, secured control of 
the city, forcing Ulloa to flee for safety to a 
Spanish vessel in the harbor. The patriots 
drew up a memorial of Ulloa 's outrages and 
sent a copy to him in Havana. They then 
formed the project of organizing a republic and 
union of all American colonies. The plan failed. 
The times were not yet ready for such a change. 

2. ESTABLISHMENT OF SPANISH CON- 
TROL, 1769-70. 

Suppression of the Revolution. Spain de- 
cided to keep Louisiana. It would serve as a 

good bulwark be- 
tween the English 
possessions and val- 
ued Mexico. Don 
Alexandro O'Reilly 
became the new gov- 
ernor, and with 
three thousand six 
hundred Spanish 
troops and twenty- 
four vessels, arrived 
at New Orleans in 
August, 1769. The 
leaders of the con- 
s p i r a c y of '68 
thought of leaving the colony. Aubry, who was 
in constant communication with O'Reilly, ad- 
vised against this, saying they would be treated 
with clemency. However, events proved the 
■contrary. They were entrapped, and five of 
the principals, including Lafreniere and Noyan, 
were shot October 25, 1769; six others were 
confined in various prisons. 

Change in Government. O'Reilly abolished 
the Superior Council and replaced it by the 
Cabildo, in which some of the memberships 
were held for life. The governor presided over 
the Cabildo in person. Spanish laws were sub- 
stituted for the French, but as both were based 




DON' ALEXANDRO O'REILLY. 



on the Roman code, this did not cause much 
change. The Spanish language became the 
official tongue, though French was permitted in 
notarial and judicial acts in the parishes. A 
system of taxation was organized which pro- 
vided a regular revenue for the city; a ship- 
ping tax was devoted to the construction and 
improvement of the levees. Commerce was 
greatly benefited by the opening of free trade 
with Cuba. A census taken gives the popula- 
tion of New Orleans at three thousand one 
hundred ninety, of which one thousand nine 
hundred one were free persons, one thousand 
two hundred thirty slaves, and sixty Indians; 
there were four hundred sixty-eight houses. 

3. SPANISH DEVELOPMENT OF NEW OR- 
LEANS, 1770-1800. 

Improvement of Trade Laws. "When O'Reilly 
came to New Orleans, the English controlled the 
trade. This was soon stopped by English ships 
being prohibited entrance into the port. Under 
certain restrictions, trade was allowed with 
Campeachy and the French and Spanish West 
Indies. Trade in slaves from these islands was 
forbidden because of the revolutionary spirit 
existing there, but encouragement was given to 
the Guinea slave trade. Governor Galvez per- 
mitted free trade with France and the Thirteen 
American Colonies in 1778. Merchants from 
Boston, New York and Philadelphia soon 
opened business houses in New Orleans. 



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BERNARDO GALVEZ. 



16 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



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Assistance Given to American Revolution. 
Galvez allowed Oliver Pollock, an American 
merchant, to colled anus and ammunition and 
send them by a fleet of canoes to Fort Pitt for 
delivery to the Americans. In 1779, Spain 
allied herself to the Thirteen Colonies and 
France against England. Galvez immediately 
marched against Fori Manchae, Baton Rouge, 
Mobile and Pensacola, and drove the English 
from these forts. The 
Treaty of Paris. 1783, 
confirmed Spain in 
the possession of this 
territory, granted 
free and open navi- 
gation of the Missis- 
sippi River to the 
subjects of Great 
Britain and the 
United States, and 
gave thirty-one de- 
grees North Latitude 
as the southern boun- 
dary of the United 
States. 

Great Fires of 
1788 and 1794. The 
conflagration of 17 vs 
originated in a Span- 
ish official's private 



\£mB3?p 



the levee to shelter the homeless population. 
Spanish Rebuilding of the City. The con- 
flagration had a most beneficial effect on the 
city. It was seen that the material generally 
used for buildings was highly inflammable and 
assisted the fire in its ravages. Carondelet 
urged the use of tile roofs instead of shingles, 
and even offered a premium on them. The old 
city gradually rose up as we see it to-day, with 

its Spanish-American 
architecture — w alls 
of adobe or brick, 
white or yellow lime- 
washed stucco, heavy 
dooi's and windows, 
balconies, portes-co- 
cheres, arcades, and 
inner courts; two- 



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PLAN OF THE GREAT CONFLAGRATION", 



chapel on Chartres Street, near St. Louis. It 
destroyed the central portion of the town, 
where were the commercial quarter, the princi- 
pal residence-, government house, arsenal, 
prison, church, and Capuchin convent. Nine- 
teen squares were devastated, with a loss of 
eight hundred fifty-six houses. In 1794, some 
children accidentally set fire to a hay store on 
Royal Street. Two hundred twelve homes 

were destroyed. 
The cathedral, re- 
cently rebuilt, es- 
caped. The finan- 
cial loss occasioned 
by this fire exceed- 
ed that of the first, 
and has been esti- 
mated at two mil- 
lion six 
thousand 
I ' a m p s 



story homes replaced 
the former low one- 
story. 

Work of Don Al- 
monaster y Roxas. 
Don Almonaster y 
Roxas was the great- 
est benefactor of New 
Orleans in that peri- 
od. He opened his 
purse freely to his 
city in her hour of 
He rented in perpetuity 
flanking the Place 




BARON DE CARONDELET. 



hundred 
dollars, 
w e r e 
opened in the Place 
d'Arrues and on 



need, for all purposes, 
from the city the squares 
d'Arrues, and where how stand the red Pontalba 
buildings, erected a fine row of brick buildings, 
which were immediately occupied by "bou- 
tiques, ' ' the retail 
stores. In 1784, he had 
the Charity Hospital, 
which had been de- 
stroyed by a hurricane 
five years previous, re- 
built in brick at a cost 
of one hundred four- 
teen thousand dollars. 
Three years later, he 
gave the Ursuline 
Nuns a chapel of stuc- 
co brick. The rebuild- 
ing of the church was 
begun in 1792 at his 
expense and, when 
completed two years 

, . , , , DON ANDRES ALMONASTER 

later, became the roxas. 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



17 




cathedral, as Florida and Louisiana had been 
united into one diocese, with the bishopric in 
New Orleans. The cathedral was constructed 
of brick, and appeared much as it does to-day. 
Owing to cracking, the belfrys, which were 
added in 1815, were changed in the fifties. Don 
A 1 monaster 
gave not only 
to charity and 
religion, but 
to the govern- 
ment as well. 
In 1795, he 
save the city 
its town hall, 
or hall of the 
Cabildo, now 
commonly 
known as sim- 
ply the Cabil- 
do; there has 
been one great 
change made 
in its appear- 
ance since the 
time of its 
founder — the 
addition of a French roof. Here, the Spanish 
Cabildo held its sessions and the formal trans- 
fer of Louisiana from France to the United 
States took place. 

Government's Improvements. The barracks, 
begun by Kerlerec as 
places of refuge for the 
French settlers driven 
out of other places cap- 
tured by the English, 
were well completed 
and nearby a military 
hospital and chapel 
were built. 

Where now stands 
the Customhouse, a 
little wooden one was 
e re cted ; the "Old 
French Market," the 
"Halle de Boueheries," 
was also built then. By 
L796, the excavation of 
( larondelet Canal and 
the "old basin" was 
completed ; thus New 
Orleans was connected 



CABILDO AS :t appears today. 




with Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain, 
and the city's drainage begun. 

San Domingo Refugees. The revolutions in 
San Domingo caused many of the planters to 
come with their families and slaves to Xew 
Orleans. They brought with them the French 

revolutionary 
ideas of the 
period, which 
they easily in- 
troduced by 
means of such 
songs as the 
'■ Marsellais 
and the "Ca 
Ira." 

Carondele- 
let's Fortifica- 
tions. Though 
the Kentucky 
farmers need- 
ed open wa- 
ters to the 
Gulf for the 
t transporta- 
tion of their 
crops, they 
turned a deaf ear to the invitation of the mes- 
senger from Carondelet that they oppose the 
United States. Fearing lest these farmers 
should plan an attack and to protect the city 
against possible inroads of the Kentuckians 
and put down the developing revo- 
lutionary spirit withiu the city, 
Carondelet had the city fortified. 
Though these fortifications could 
not have accomplished the first 
purpose, they did secure the sec- 




YIEW IX THi: INTERIOR OF THE CABILDO. 
Showing the Grand Staircase and Wrought Iron Door. 



THE CORRIDOR OF THE CABILDO. 
Showing Kunve Arches. 



18 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



ond; there were five forts connected by a wall, 
in front of which was a moat. Fort St. Charles 
was on the lower river front and Fort St. Louis 
on the upper; each of these consisted of a fort 
and a parapet eighteen feet thick, faced with 
brick; they could each accommodate one hun- 
dred fifty men, and were armed with twelve 
twelve and eighteen-pounders. Fort Burgundy 
was at the corner of Canal and Eampart; Fort 
St. Joseph on the present Beauregard Square 
(formerly known as Congo Square) ; and Fort 
St. Ferdinand at the corner of Rampart and 
Esplanade Avenue. The wall connecting these 
forts was fifteen feet high, and the fosse, or 
moat, seven feet in depth by a width of forty 
feet; Carondelet Canal kept the water in it 
about three feet high. 

Granulation of Sugar, 1795. The indigo 
crop had not been a success because of the un- 
favorable climate and the devastation of an 
insect that fed on its leaves. Etienne de Bore 

decided to cultivate 
his entire plantation 
in sugar. This plan- 
tation was where 
Carrollton now is. 
He hired a skillful 
sugar-maker, a San 
Domingo refugee, to 
granulate the sugar. 
Mr. de Bore's fam- 
ily and friends had 
pleaded with him 
not to be so rash, 
but to no purpose. 
A number of plant- 
ers went to de Bore's for the experiment. They 
gathered around the little mill to watch the 
process. Suddenly a cry arose, "It granu- 
lates!" De Bore's fortune was made and the 
famed Louisiana industry brought to light, 
opening wide a great door to prosperity. 

Commerce. By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, 
the Mississippi River was free to Great Britain 
and the United States for navigation ; but Spain 
did not intend to hold to this clause. Those 
Americans who had crossed over the Alleghany 
Mountains to seek homes in the rich valley of 
the Ohio took advantage of this privilege to 
build up a flatboat trade with New Orleans, 
exchanging their produce of hides, meat, flour, 
corn, etc., for manufactured goods. As early 
as 1786, some of these flatboats were seized and 




ETIENNE DE BOUE. 



confiscated. The enraged Westerners threat- 
ened to capture New Orleans, but waited for 
Congress to treat with Spain. Spain had two 
plans, namely, to induce the Kentuckians to 
come in as immigrants, or to generate among 
them the spirit of insurrection against the 
"negligence" of Congress, and thus separate 
the West from the East. Some Westerners did 
come, and located about the town of New 
Madrid. General James Wilkinson, a shrewd 
Kentuckian, sent a number of flatboats laden 
with Western produce to New Orleans in 1787, 
and, by working on Governor Miro's political 
fears, opened up the river trade. France con- 
trolled the city's Atlantic trade. The port of 
New Orleans was neither closed nor open; 
commerce could be carried on, but there was 
danger; all depended on the caprices of Spanish 
officials. In 1793, Spain granted to all her col- 
onies free trade with Europe and America. 

Carondelet succeeded Miro as governor. He 
endeavored through an agent, one Thomas 
Powers, to bribe the Kentucky leaders into sep- 
arating from the United States, but in vain. 

New Orleans was opened to the Americans 
as a point of deposit for three years, free of 
duty or charge on produce, except a reasonable 
price for store rent. The commerce of New 
Orleans improved by leaps and bounds. The 
levee was the scene of noisy, excited bustling 
and business. Before the people could realize 
it, the three years had passed. The United 
States demanded that Spain evacuate her ter- 
ritory, as agreed in the two treaties. Morales, 
the intendant of the colony, closed the port of 
New Orleans and assigned no other place to the 
Westerners. American indignation rose high. 
President Adams prepared an expedition to 
capture New 
Orleans. Its 
advance was 
prevented b y 
the approach- 
ing retirement 
of Adams and 
Spain's disap- 
proval of the 
intendant 's act. 




A FLATBOAT. 



4. NEW ORLEANS, 1800-'15. 

Buildings. The Spanish governors lived in 
a plain, one-story brick house at the corner of 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



19 



Toulouse and the Rue de la Levee; it faced the 
river, had a parterre to one side and on the 
other a latticed screened gallery; the kitchen 
and stables were in the veil -fenced rear yard. 
The Orleans legislature occupied the building 



from 1803 until it was burnt in 1827. The 
Charity Hospital and Military Hospital have 
also passed away. The Cathedral and Cabildo 
are still intact, and are splendid types of the 
Spanish architecture then prevalent. Brick or 




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20 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 



stucco with a covering of cement were used in 
building; the structures were massive, with 
arches and arched doorways, balconies and 
courtyards; they were to stand the wear of 
time and weather. The old French Market is 
also the product of these times, as is shown by 
the materials of which it is made and the large, 
cool arches. Many private buildings in the 
Vieux Carre date from this period. 

People. The city was cosmopolitan in its 
population. There were the native Creoles, 
French, Spanish, English, Americans from the 
States, Germans, Italians, refugees from San 
Domingo and Martinique, emigrants from the 
Canaries, gipsies, negroes and Indians. The 
French were the shop-keepers and farmers; 
the Spaniards, in the government's employ; the 
Catalonians, the shop and saloon-keepers. The 
American, English and Irish element formed 
the chief commercial class. The dairymen and 
truck-farmers were mostly Canary Islanders or 
Islinques; the fishermen, Italians; gipsies, who 
had given up their wandering life, turned musi- 
cians and dancers. The "Kaintocks," Ken- 
tucky flatboatmen, formed a large, though 
floating population; they brought down the 
river on their flatboats the raw produce of the 
west and, after the sale of their cargoes, would 
give themselves up to riotous times. The 
Creoles cordially disliked them, as is shown by 
the custom among Creole mothers of telling a 
naughty child, "Tu n'es qu'un mauvais Kain- 
tock." 

Jackson Square. The Place d'Armes, now 
called Jackson Square, was the promenade of 
1800. Here, the troops were reviewed and the 
children played of an evening, on the barren 
ground, beneath the shadow of the wooden 
gallows, which stood about where General Jack- 
son's statue is to-day. The Cathedral, Capu- 
chin convent, Cabildo, and government ware- 
houses faced the square; the leading "bou- 
tiques" and restaurants were around, and to 
one side was French Market, where handker- 
chiefs, shoes and hats were sold along with 
meat, fruit and vegetables. The public landing 
was along the levee in front of the square. 
Here, on a holiday, the populace congregated; 
excitable Louisianians, ever ready to defend 
their honor with their rapiers; Canadian trap- 
pers and hunters ; Attakapas 'Cadians in home- 
made cottonades; indolent gentlemen banished 
for interference with the king or politics; fas- 



cinating Quadroon beauties from San Domingo; 
quiet, energetic Germans from German coast; 
brilliantly uniformed Spanish soldiers; ex- 
galley slaves and convicts. Peddlers wheeled 
their goods about in coffin-shaped vehicles; 
turbaned women balanced large cans of milk 
and coffee on their heads. In the morning, the 
colored marchandes kept the air resounding 
with cries of "callas tous chauds," and at dusk, 
"belles chandelles." 

Streets. The streets were regularly laid out, 
and drained by wooden gutters; but there was. 
no pavement. Pedestrians were accommodated 
by a wooden banquette four or five feet wide; 
between the sidewalks, the streets were, accord- 
ing to the state of the weather, either a marsh 
or a mass of dust. Wagons sank to the hub as 
they worked their way through them. Chartres 
Street and the Eue de la Levee were the prin- 
cipal thoroughfares. 

Lights. The streets were lighted by oil 
lamps swung at the street intersections from 
ropes caught to the corners of the houses; their 
dimness forced the people to carry lanterns if 
they wished to see their way. The homes were 
lighted by myrtle wax candles, placed, for pro- 
tection against drafts, within huge glass vases, 
open at the bottom to facilitate their being put 
over the candles. 

Water Supply. There were neither cisterns 
nor water system. The people drank filtered 
river water, and, for household purposes, used 
dug wells on the premises. 

Servants. The servants were negro and In- 
dian slaves. But it was the negro mammy who 
was the ideal servant as cook, nurse, and second 
mother to the children, despite the fact that she 
taught them the wretched patois, "gombo," of 
the Louisiana negro. This dialect consisted of 
a few hundred words, and lacked grammatical 
structure; it was originated by the primitive 
negroes of Africa, who found the French lan- 
guage too difficult. The manual work of the 
colony was done by slaves; people made a busi- 
ness of owning slaves, training them, and rent- 
ing them out to those who did not possess any. 
The servants always dressed plainly; the 
women wore on their heads the brilliant ban- 
dannas, "tignons." Indian slaves were trouble- 
some, and at length became so dangerous the 
United States government freed them; a little 
later there was a negro uprising, which was 
only overcome after considerable loss of life. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



21 



City Guardians. The military had the duty 
of preserving order. For this purpose a small 
band of soldiers was kept on duty at the cala- 
boose, and at stated intervals paraded through 
the streets, or appeared on the scene of disorder 
after the trouble had subsided. At night, it was 
their duty to call out the hour and the state of 
the weather. Their costume was very impos- 
ing; it consisted of a deep blue frock, crossing 
over which were black leather straps to uphold 
a cartridge box, bayonet and scabbard; knee- 
breeches completed the outfit. They were armed 
with an old flint-lock musket and short sword. 

Promenades and Drives. The favorite walk 
was along the levee; there, at the ends of the 
streets, were a few backless benches where the 
promenaders met to 
rest and chat. Bayou 
Road, leading to Gentil- 
ly and Metairie, was the 
evening driveway of the 
citizens. 

Entertainment. The 
c i t y boasted of one 
theatre, on St. Peter 
Street, between Royal 
and Bourbon; it was a 
long, low cypress struc- 
ture. A company of 
San Domingo actors 
and actresses rendered 
comedy, vaudeville, and 
comic opera in 1799. 
After a few years, the 
troupe declined, and 
were replaced by local 
talent. 

Dancing. Of all amuse- 
ments, dancing was the 
most popular. In a long 
room, about eighty feet 
by thirty feet, in a 
wooden building on 
Chartres, between St. 




\ LPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



Ann and Dumaine, the light-hearted people me\ 
twice a week to enjoy the Terpsichorean art; 
one evening was for adults and the other for 
the children. The dancers paid fifty cents a 
head. Elevated boxes along the wall accommo- 
dated the mammas and young wall flowers; 
seats to the front of these were for the fair 
dancers; the men were allowed to stand. The 
music was furnished by gypsy violinists. 

Duelling. There existed among the men of 
that day the "code d'honneur," by which a 
gentleman fought another for anything, from 
an accidental mashing of a sensitive corn to an 
attack on his life or character. French custom 
considered a man's honor satisfied by the first 
drop of blood. The Creole fought with coliche- 

mards, Creole rapiers, 
sword canes, or pistols. 
There were three noted 
duelling grounds, viz.: 
St. Anthony Square, in 
rear of the Cathedral, 
which was then thickly 
hedged in; "The Oaks," 
in City Park, where the 
m ore talked-of duels 
took place; and "Les 
Trois Capalins," three 
sister trees, on Metairie 
Road. 

The First News- 
paper. 1794 saw the 
first newspaper, "Le 
Moniteur de la Louisi- 
ane," published in New 
Orleans. It was not 
very newsy, being more 
of a journal of govern- 
ment proceedings. Ten 
years later, the first 
English paper, the 
Gazette, was edited. 



SECTION 3. TRANSITION PERIOD. 



Louisiana Coveted by the United States and 
France. The United States realized the neces- 
sity of possessing Louisiana for the develop- 
ment of the western section, and proceeded 



to look to its acquisition. Napoleon, the First 
Consul of France, desired to re-establish the 
colonial power of France in North America, and 
looked with a pleased eye upon Louisiana. 



22 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 





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Secret Treaty of Ildefonso, 1800. Napoleon 
persuaded the king of Spain to secretly cede 
Louisiana to France in exchange for a province 
in Italy. This transaction first became known 
in America in November, 1802. 

Unsettled Conditions in Louisiana. Not 

until March, 1803, 
did the French 
Colonial prefect, 
Laussat, land in 
New Orleans. With 
Governor Salcedo 
and Marquis de 
Casa Calvo, a 
former governor, 
he began prepara- 
tions for the re- 
ception of General 
Victor, w h o was 
to receive the 
formal transfer 
of Louisiana from Spain. Once more the people 
were astir. They knew not what to expect of 
the lately established Republican Government 
in France. 

Purchase of Louisiana by the United States, 
April 30, 1803. President Jefferson realized the 
great danger to the United States in having a 
foreign power in possession of the mouth of the 
Mississippi. He appointed Monroe and Living- 
ston to treat with Napoleon for the purchase 
of the "Isle of Orleans." Napoleon refused 
this offer, but, instead, 
proposed to sell the 
whole of Louisiana for 
fifteen million dollars. 
The two commission- 
ers realized the good 
quality of the bargain, 
and made the purchase 
April 30, 1803, trust- 
ing to Jefferson to se- 
cure its ratification by 
( (ingress. This Jeffer- 
son accomplished the 
following October, and 
obtained the authoriz- 
ation to take posses- 
sion of the ceded ter- 
ritory. 

The Transfers. In- 
stead of General Vic- 
tor's arrival in July, 



there came to New Orleans the news of the pur- 
chase of Louisiana by the United States in the 
preceding April. On November 30, the troops 
were drawn up in the Place d 'Amies and, in 
the hall of the Cabildo, Governor Salcedo de- 
livered Ihe keys of the city to Laussat. Casa 




THOMAS JEFFERSON. 



Calvo addressed the people in the name of the 
Spanish King, and released them from their 
allegiance to Spain; the Spanish flag was low- 
ered and that of France hoisted. Twenty days 
later the same ceremony took place, with a 



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then ond the* i> ■ ■ ' 

ccivc such trofcmuni 
them, ond ■ ■ ■ 

m, miliar iviilrun TAiv be iltcvned meet foi ' 

■.: ^ ■<■ 

In Tcniou n| Whereof, I have t m 
'United St.- ■■ 
*iiih ni) h;n 

Done..' ' ; hingtnn, «ht »iii atuh d>> 

, dI Jul) 

."td ihJ ihice; a,m 

ndenct cfihe U..iied Slate 

1 1 nsox. 



^Signed* 

Ry the President, 
(Signed) Jan>6 fcfADHONj Sttrelaij • Slf 






Li 



COPY OF JEFFERSON'S PROCLAMATION OF A SPECIAL SESSION OF CONGRESS TO RATIFY THE 
PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA FROM FRANCE. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



23 



change in the dramatis personna?; Laussat 
transferred the province to the two American 
commissioners, Claiborne and Wilkinson; the 
former took charge of civil affairs and the latter 
of the military. With such sudden changes of 



nationality, in which the Louisianians were 
handed about from one nation to another, 
without ever being consulted, is it any won- 
der thai they appeared apathetic and unin- 
terested? 



SECTION 4. AMERICAN DOMINATION. 



1. New Orleans, 1803- '15. 
Commerce. The pur- 
chase of Louisiana by the 
United States had an im- 
mediate effect on New 
Orleans trade. The first 
half of 1803 showed an 
increase in tonnage of 
thirty-seven per c en t 
over that of 1802; the ex- 
ports exceeded two mil- 
lion dollars and the im- 
ports two million five 
hundred thousand dol- 
lars. The flatboat trade 
became enormous; their 
mooring was above the 
city, along what is now 
Tchoupitoulas Street. 

Suburbs or Faubourgs. 
Above the Terre Com- 
mune, Common Street, 
was Mme. Gravier 's plan- 




CKSSIOX OF LOUISIANA TO Till'. UNITED STATES. 



tation, part of the former 
Jesuit grant. In 1788, 
some streets were opened 
and lots marked off; it 
grew very little at first, 
until the coming of the 
Americans; it then be- 
came the commercial 
center of the city. The 
street names commem- 
orated the first owners, 
or the use the place was 
put to; as, for example: 
Gravier Street, from 
Gravier, the original 
owner: Poydras Street, 
from the great philan- 
thropist, whose home 
was located there; Maga- 
zine Street, from the 
Spanish name for the 
great tobacco warehouse 
that stood on Magazine 




A VIEW OP -NEW ORLEANS FROM THE l'LANTATION OF MARIGNY, 1803. 



24 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



and Common; Camp Street, from a slave camp 
located there, between Poydras and Girod. 
The aristocratic suburb was along the Bayou 
St. John road. Below the Vieux Carre was the 
Marigny plantation, which, when inherited by 
Bernard Marigny, was opened up as a faubourg 
and settled by the French. To-day it is one of 
the most densely populated portions of New 
Orleans. 

Orleans Territory, March 26, 1804. Con- 
gress divided Louisiana into two parts; the 
extent of the present state was known as Or- 
leans Territory. The President appointed a 
legislative council and named Claiborne gov- 
ernor; certain Spanish land-grants were nulli- 
fied and an official inspection made of all titles; 
the slave trade was interdicted. 
The Louisianians became indig- 
nant at the last regulation; in- 
surrectionary sentiments were 
placarded on the streets, copied 
by crowds, and when the police 
attempted to remove them they 
were driven away. However, 
the trouble went no further. 
But slaves continued to be 
smuggled in by way of the lakes 
and different bayous and inlets. 

City of New Orleans, March, 
1805. New Orleans was incor- 
porated as a city by the charter 
of March, 1805. The people, in 
electing aldermen, exercised the 
right of suffrage for the first 
time. 

Concessions to Orleans Ter- 
ritory. In March, 1805, Con- 
gress allowed the people of Orleans Territory 
to elect the House of Representatives, and 
promised them statehood when the population 
should equal sixty thousand souls. 

Restless Spirit in City. The spirit of the 
populace was restless, owing to the unsettled 
conditions, viz., the war between Spain and 
Great Britain; presence of Casa Calvo and 
Morales; and possibility of war between the 
United States and Spain. Casa Calvo and 
Morales were put out of the colony and the 
trouble with Spain passed over. Claiborne, 
writing to the President in November, 1806, 
said: "Were it not for the calumnies of some 
Frenchmen, who are among us, and the in- 
trigues of a few ambitious, unprincipled men, 




whose native language is English, I do believe 
that the Louisianians would be very soon the 
most zealous and faithful members of our 
Republic." 

Aaron Burr's Conspiracy. In June, 1803, 
disappointed, but undaunted, by his political 
defeats in the east, Burr came to Louisiana 
bringing letters of introduction to the best 
people of New Orleans. He bought a large 
tract of land on the Red River and was be- 
lieved to be intent on establishing a separate 
government in Mexican territory and of prob- 
ably including in this a portion of the Louisiana 
territory. He was arrested by order of Presi- 
dent Jefferson; was tried at Richmond, Va., on 
a charge of treason; but was acquitted, 1807. 
West Indian Immigration. 
The population more than 
doubled itself between 1803 and 
1810. The war between France 
and Spain caused many whites 
and mulattos of San Domingo to 
become exiles; between May 19 
and July 18, 1809, thirty-four 
vessels from Cuba brought to 
New Orleans over one thousand 
eight hundred whites, almost as 
many free persons of color, and 
about two thousand slaves; in 
all, about five thousand seven 
hundred ninety-seven souls. 
Others followed from Cuba, 
Guadeloupe, and other islands, 
until the total reached ten thou- 
sand. Very few ever left the 
city. The Creoles of the West 
Indies were united with the 
Creoles of Louisiana by strong ties; they had 
the same religion, language, and political ideas, 
and had met with similar misfortune. This was 
the period of Creole domination; the city had 
few German and Irish citizens; the two thou- 
sand free persons of color were an indolent 
class; the floating population of sailors from 
all parts, bargemen, flatboatmen, and raftsmen 
from the wild region of the Tennessee, Ohio, 
and Cumberland Rivers, were unruly and riot- 
ous, engaging in riots and brawls, and giving 
themselves up to shameful excesses on com- 
pleting their journey. Strife pervaded the 
town. A riot was nearly caused by a news- 
paper article that reflected on Napoleon. Plays 
were put upon the theatre boards which caused 



GOV. W. C. C. CLAIBORNE. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



25 



the Ursulines to appeal to the governor for pro- 
tection against public derision. 

Admission of Louisiana as a State, April 30, 
1812. The population of Orleans Territory had 
now reached the 60,000-mark required by Con- 
gress as necessary for her admission as a state. 
A convention met in New Orleans in November, 
1811, to draw up a constitution; it was adopted 
as the State Constitution, January 28, 1812, and, 
on the following April 30, Louisiana was ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state. 

The "New Orleans." January 10, 1812, 
was a red-letter day in the city's commercial 
history. On that day, 
the "New Orleans," a 
steam-propelled vessel, 
planned by Fulton but 
owned by Nicholas J. 
Roosevelt (a relative of 
Ex-President Roose- 
velt) arrived on her 
maiden trip- from Pitts- 
burg. It was only five 
years previous that Ful- 
ton had invented the 
steamboat. 

Outlook on City's 
Future, 1812. The fu- 
ture of New Orleans ap- 
peared, assured to be 
prosperous, once inter- 
national politics should 
be cleared. Cotton, by 
Whitney's invention of 
the gin had become one 
of the world's greatest 
industries. Steam navi- 
gation closely united 
New Orleans with the 
distant parts of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. State- 
hood confirmed the people in the possession of 
their government and liberty. 

War of 1812. England's violation of the 
United States' rights as a neutral and her as- 
sumption of the right to search American ves- 
sels and impress seamen on board, whom she 
considered English citizens, precipitated war 
between the two nations. The War of 1812 was 
the aftermath of the Revolutionary War and 
settled the remaining disputed points. 

Defenseless Condition of New Orleans. New 
Orleans was left undefended by the attempt to 




JEAN AND PIERRE LAFITTE AND DOMINIQUE YOU 
From a Portrait by Jams, 1812. 



make Canada the seat of the war. Wilkinson 
was ordered to occupy thai part of Florida west 
of the Perdido River. The Creeks massacred 
350 whites at Fort Mimms, Mississippi. Drunk- 
en Choctaws roamed the streets of New Orleans. 
Lafitte and his smugglers held Barataria Bay 
and appeared daily in the city. Crevasses oc- 
curred, as well as fires. Though Claiborne 
labored assiduously, it was many months before 
he could muster the 1,000 men called for by the 
President. In the meantime, Napoleon's abdi- 
cation enabled England to throw more energy 
into her campaigns. In August, Congress or- 
dered Jackson to pro- 
ceed to New Orleans 
for its defense. The 
British had established 
themselves in Florida 
and were offering large 
rewards to all who 
would join them, es- 
pe cially the Bara- 
tarians. 

The Baratarians. The 
Baratarians were a 
band of French and 
South Americans, who 
claimed to be engaged 
in smuggling, not in 
piracy. The Lafitte 
brothers had obtained 
control over these dar- 
ing characters and or- 
ganized them into a 
band. The English 
failed in their attempt 
to secure their assist- 
ance; instead, Lafitte 
offered their services to 
Claiborne, who refused 
them, since he looked 
upon them as smugglers and outlaws, and Com- 
modore Patterson and Colonel Ross were on 
their way to destroy their rendezvous on Bara- 
taria Bay. This was accomplished a few days 
later; the Lafitte 's escaped to the German 
coast, while their followers made use of any 
available refuge. 

Andrew Jackson's Arrival. The arrival of 
Andrew Jackson on December 1st, created con- 
fidence and enthusiasm among the New Or- 
leanians. He immediately set to work; fortified 
Fort St. Philip, demolished its wooden bar- 



26 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



racks, mounted additional cannon; inspected 
the country in and about the city, and instruct- 
ed Governor Claiborne to have obstructed all 
bayous on the "Isle of Orleans" leading to the 
Gulf. Through some unexplained oversight, 
Bayou Bienvenue 
was not closed. By 
December 14th, the 
British fleet of 
eighty sail, led by 
Cochrane, the 
dreaded ravager of 
the Atlantic Coast, 
was in possession 
of Lake Borgne. 
Claiborne informed 
the Legislature of 
the arrival of the 
British fleet and 
advised its ad- 
journment; the 
Legislature did not 
comply with this 
advice, so Jackson, 
declaring the safe- 
ty of the city re- 
quired it, pro- 
claimed martial 
law. Jackson later 
was fined $1,000 
for this, but was 
subsequently reim- 
bursed by the 
United States Gov- 
e r n m e n t . Jean 
Lafitte now offered 
the services of the 
Baratarians to 
Jackson, who ac- 
cepted them. Jack- 
son 's army was a 
motley crew; every 
man capable of 
bearing arms was 
mustered into ser- 
vice; it was about 
6,000 strong, com- 
posed of Tennessee 

riflemen under Generals Carroll and Coffee, 
Creoles and French, freemen of color, Choctaw 
Indians, even prison inmates. 

Advance of the British. Cochrane com- 
manded the fleet and Sir Edward Pakenham the 




>^~<f Z 




FAC-S1MILK 01-' NOTE FROM ANDREW JACKSON TO EDWARD LIVINGSTON 



land forces. The English forces numbered 
14,450, among whom were veterans of Welling- 
ton's famed Peninsular campaign. Of the total 
number 3,600 were on the main line, 6,000 were 
in reserve, and the rest were stationed at dif- 
ferent points. The 
fighting began on 
December 23. Re- 
connoissance of 
Lake Borgne re- 
vealed the unclosed 
entrance to Bayou 
Bienvenue; the 
American picket 
stationed there was 
easily overpow- 
ered, and the Eng- 
lish boats passed 
up the bayou into 
Villere's canal. At 
half-past eleven in 
the morning, Gen- 
eral Keane's divi- 
sion came out upon 
the open plain at 
the rear of Gen- 
eral Villere's plan- 
tation, seized the 
home, and formed 
their cam]). There 
was not a foot of 
fortification be- 
tween the English 
camp and New Or- 
leans. Major 
Yillere h a d been 
locked up in his 
home. He realized 
the necessity of in- 
forming Jackson 
of the location of 
the British in or- 
der to save New 
Orleans and save 
his honor from be- 
ing tarnished with 
the suspicion of his 
being in league 
He made a bold dash for 
his guards, and, unscathed 



ANDREW JACKSON. 

miniature presented by Andrew Jackson to Edward Livingston, March 1, 1815, 
painted by Jean Francois Valle in New Orleans, by Jackson's orders. 









JhcsW- 



*4 



with the British. 

liberty, sped past 

by the shower of bullets sent after him, reached 

the swamp forest in the rear. Here he hid in 

the thick moss up in the trees until the English 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



27 



gave up the search; his faith- 
ful dog having followed him, 
Villere was forced to kill the 
animal in order to keep his 
own hiding place in the tree 
concealed. He reached the 
city in time to inform Jackson 
of the enemy's advance. Major 
Villere 's foot race, though 
little known, was far more haz- 
ardous than Paul Revere 's 
midnight ride. The English, 
by halting for reinforcements, 
gave Jackson time to prepare 
for them. That evening, he 
sent the schooner, Carolina, to 
open her broadsides on the 
British camp, while he at- 
tacked by land. The fighting 
lasted until stopped by the 
heavy fog. The next morning, 
Jackson removed two miles nearer to New Or- 
leans, to Rodriguez's canal; here, he established 
his fortifications, threw up breastworks, dug 
trenches, and put his ten guns to oppose the 
twenty-eight of the British. Skirmishing oc- 
curred nearly every day; but still the enemy 
made no great, attack. Their delay strengthened 
Jackson's army. On December 30th, 300 Aca- 




GBN. JA< \UT.S VILLERE. 



dians arrived; two days later, 
500 men from Baton Rouge; on 
January 2nd, 2,250 Kentuck- 
ians, poorly clad and armed; 
the citizens of New Orleans 
immediately collected $1(1,000, 
which was spent for clothing 
for them, the garments being 
made by the women of the 
city. 

Battle of New Orleans, 
January 8, 1815. General 
Lambert's division at last ar- 
rived. The British planned to 
make four simultaneous at- 
tacks: one on the opposite side 
of the river and three on the 
New Orleans side. The first 
attack was delayed, the time 
allowed the troops being too 
short; hence, though it was 
successful, it occurred too late to be of any help. 
The English formed about 400 yards from the 
American line, in a close column of sixty men 
front; burdened with heavy fascines of ripe 
sugar cane, ladders, and weighty knap-sacks, 
they could move but slowly; with cheers still 
on their lips they fell before the guns of their 
enemy. The accuracy of the American fire tore 




BATTLK OF SEW OH LEANS. 



28 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



out whole files of men. The British retreated 
and formed again, to meet with worse defeat. 
The soldiers could not be rallied for a third 
attack. Sir Edward Pakenham and General 
Gibbs had fallen mortally wounded, and Gen- 
eral Keane was severely injured; this left 
General Lambert in command. The English 
continued the fire from their batteries until two 
o'clock in the afternoon; but the Battle of New 
Orleans was over at nine-thirty in the morning, 
when the attempt to storm the 
American line was abandoned, one 
hour after the signal had been given 
to begin fighting. January 9-18, an 
ineffectual attack was made on Fort 
St. Philip. The only explanation 
for the defeat of so splendid an 
army by one so small and so poor- 
ly equipped is the deadly marks- 
manship of the Kentucky sharp- 
shooters and the slowness of the 
British advance. 

Effects of the Great Victory. 
Rejoicing in New Orleans knew no 
bounds. A public reception in the 
Place d 'Amies was tendered Gen- 
eral Jackson, during which he 
was, as the victors of old, crowned 
with laurel; he then attended the 
solemn services of thanksgiving 
held in the Cathedral. There was 
little to mar the general joy, as only 
six of the defenders had been killed 
and seven wounded. The kindly 
assistance that would have been 
given to their own was generously 
extended to the thousands of Eng- 
lish wounded. On February 13, 
1815, Admiral Cochrane wrote Gen- 
eral Jackson that a treaty of peace 
had been signed between the United 
States and Great Britain on Decem- 
ber 24, 1814. Jackson received the 
official news on the following March 
17th. On March 16th, Claiborne 
wrote to Mr. Monroe, Secretary of 
War, as follows: "Our harbor is 
again whitening with canvas; the 
levee is crowded with cotton, to- 
bacco, and other articles for ex- 
portation. The merchant seems de- 
lighted with the prospect before 
him; the agriculturist finds in the 



high price for his products new excitements to 
industry." The discordant elements from that 
time gradually became welded into one har- 
monious whole. The patriotism of the Cre- 
oles was no longer doubted. Fighting side 
by side on the battlefield developed a feel- 
ing of brotherhood between the Creoles and 
Americans, and union of the two people by 
intermarriage cemented the bond thus es- 
tablished. 




THE BATTLE MONUMENT. 

Marking the spot where General Andrew Jackson's Standard fiew on his lines along 

Rodriguez Canal. Officially unveiled January 8th, 1915, at the 

100th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 



29 



2. 



FROM 

1815- '60. 



Commerce, 
1815-1840. 

Steam naviga- 
tion first ap- 
peared on the 
Mississippi in 
1812. A move- 
in e n t was 
started after 
the War of 
1812 to have 
the steam- 
boats ply on 
the river. In 
1817, 1,500 
flatboats and 
500 barges 
brought the 
produce of the 
great valley 
to New Or- 
leans ; four 
years later, 
287 steam- 
boats, 441 flat- 
boats, and 174 
barges moored 
along the 
city's river 
front. The 
Faubourg Ste. 
Marie, the 
American sec- 
tion of the 
city, became 
the trade cen- 
ter; because of 
the slack wa- 
ter in front of 
i t s batture, 
the flatboats 
moored there; 
thence arose 
great store- 
houses for 
the products 
brought down 
from the val- 
ley. The Vieux 
Carre retained 




30 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 




VIEW, AS IT APPEARS TODAY, 01" THE BANK OF LOUISIANA BUILDING, CORNER 
OF ROYAL AND CONTI STREETS, ERECTED IN 1826. 



control of the trade in coffee, indigo, sugar, rice, 
foreign fruits and wines; but cotton, tobacco, 
pork, beef, corn, flour, and northern and British 
materials were received into the American sec- 
tion. In 1825, New Orleans imports and exports 
were valued at $17,000,000. The value of trade 
increased 75 per cent, between 1820 and 1830, 
and by 1835 was 
valued at $53,- 
000,750; this in- 
crease was partly 
due to the extra- 
ordinary rise in 
prices through- 
out the country. 

Credit System 
in Business. 
There .was an 
ever-increasing 
demand for cot- 
ton, and the rich 
agricultural re- 
sources of Arkan- 
sas, Mississippi, 
and Louisiana offered great returns even for 
the investment of borrowed money. Thus the 
credit system became the rule among the cot- 
ton, sugar, and tobacco planters of these sec- 
tions. New Orleans advanced them millions in 
money at a high rate of interest, and huge 
quantities of supplies which were kept on hand 
in the city. In this way, New 
Orleans merchants and bank- 
ers enslaved the agricultural 
community, who were able to 
buy and sell only through 
them. Reckless ' borrowing 
and lending kept the planter 
in constant debt and the city 
without capital. Planters' 
notes were based on the value 
of their slaves and tilled lands 
and, regarded by results, were 
almost imaginary; but the 
system caused a great amount 
of business, which in turn called in numberless 
immigrants. 

Position of New Orleans Among Cities of 
the United States. In 1840, New Orleans was 
fourth in population, New York, Philadelphia 
and Baltimore taking the lead. In 1847- '48, 
she actually exceeded New York in exports of 
domestic products, and in total exports was 



surpassed only by New York; but her imports 
were far less; New York imported ten times as 
much and Boston over three times; her princi- 
pal imports were coffee, iron, hardware, and 
French fancy fabrics. By 1850, Boston had 
taken fourth place among the cities of the 
United States, and New Orleans dropped to fifth. 

Cause of Loss 
of Valley's Trade. 
The opening of 
the Erie Canal, 
1825, connecting 
Lake Erie, by way 
of Buffalo, with 
New York City, 
and of the Ohio 
Canal, 1832, link- 
ing the Ohio 
River to Lake 
Erie, established 
a short, easy, and 
safe communica- 
tion between the 
Ohio Valley and 
the Atlantic coast, and thereby with Europe. 
It was only a natural consequence that the 
Ohio Valley trade should take this quicker and 
less hazardous course to the New York markets 
and thence to Europe, instead of the long one 
to New Orleans and then through the Gulf of 
Mexico, around Florida, and across the Atlantic 
to Europe. The establish- 
ment of these canals opened 
up a direct course to the 
world's centers. In 1835, 
Ohio State sent 86,000 barrels 
of flour, 98,000 bushels of 
wheat, and 2,500,000 staves 
through Buffalo to the Atlan- 
tic ports. A second factor in 
alienating the valley trade 
from New Orleans was the 
danger to navigation on the 
Mississippi and Ohio Rivers; 
1824- '27, property loss on the 
two rivers aggregated one and one-third mil- 
lions; these losses were later considerably re- 
duced by the Federal Government's efforts. 
Again, the cost of running steamboats on these 
rivers was six times as heavy as on the Great 
Lakes. Neither were the mouths of the Missis- 
sippi clear; sand bars continually formed and, 
in this period, Northeast Pass, considered the 




THE TALLULAH. 
Clipper engaged in slave trade to New Orleans. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 



31 



deepest, had a depth of twelve feet. The open- 
ing of railroad communication after 1840 sev- 
ered the last tie that bound the northern valley 
commerce to New Orleans. 

Slavery — Effects. The institution of slavery, 
of its very nature, is an obstacle to industrial 
development. The African slave labor in and 
about New Orleans was also of a most inferior 
grade. Wild men, as were these negroes, do 
not become civilized and masters of crafts in 



one generation. Slavery kept out the class of 
immigrants that were adepts in mechanical and 
productive arts, the people who rapidly develop 
a nation's resources. One-third of the increase 
in population between .1830 and 1840 was 
composed of slaves and free persons of color; 
this last class, under the conditions of the 
times, were a heavy burden; the remaining 
two-thirds of the increase were Irish and Ger- 
mans of the very poorest class. 




PROGRESS OF THE GROWTH OF NEW ORLEANS. 



32 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 




UNITED STATES MTNT. 



Mulatto Exodus. The free 
mulattoes were nearly one- 
third as numerous as the 
whites in 1840. They were 
held in contempt by all, es- 
pecially by the Americans. 
The abolition movement cre- 
ated an antagonistic sentiment 
towards them. The result was 
that during the decade more 
than 9,000 left the city. No 
evidence has been found of 
their ever returning. Their 
departure raised the proportion of 
whites in the community from 58 
per cent, to 78 per cent. 

Financial Crisis, 1836- '37. The 
downfall of the United States Bank, 
establishment of multitudes of 
poorly capitalized banks, and wild 
speculation in land caused a terri- 
ble money crisis throughout the 
United States. There were few 
banks in New Orleans; with a little 
over $2,500,000 in their vaults, they 
had $7,000,000 in circulation, and 
were purported to have a capital 
of $37,000,000. Their failure pros- 
trated the city. So strong a senti- 
ment against banks arose that the 
Constitutional Convention, then in 
session, provided that no banking 




STREET RAILROAD CAR IN 1838. 



corporation should be 
established in Louisi- 
ana; thus the banking 
monopoly was given to 
a few houses that bore 
up under the financial 
stress and resumed pay- 
ment of specie in 1843 
with $4,500,000 in their 
vaults and $1,250,000 in 
circulation. 

Railroads. The first 
railroad was completed 
in New Orleans in 1830; 
it ran out E 1 y s i a n 
Fields and connected 
the city with Milne- 
burg. Captain Grant, 
the builder of the road, 
was the originator of 
the raised platform; it was 
not until 1858 that it was 
adopted throughout England 
and Europe. In 1837, two rail- 
roads were planned to join 
New Orleans to the great cen- 
tral railroad system of the 
United States in the Missis- 
sippi Valley, and with Texas; 
the first was to stretch north 
to Jackson, Mississippi; the 
second, westerly to Opelousas, 
Louisiana. The state assisted 




JACKSON SQUARE AS IT APPEARED IN 1838. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



33 



mmMAifo runt 




! M ®| * 




i-^i \** 



v 






p-' 















>*? 






MAP OF LOUISIANA, 1S49. 



both enterprises, and by 1855 the first and by 
1857 the second extended eighty miles from the 
city. 

City Expansion. The ancient fortifications 
disappeared about 1808. The city spread out 
above and below along the river bank. New 
streets were cut; they were wider than the old 
ones, especially those in the American quarter, 
and, after' 1820, 
paved with brick or 
stone. Even the bat- 
ture being formed 
by the river in front 
of tbe Faubourg Ste. 
Marie was taken 
and built up for bus- 
iness purposes. Be- 
fore the eighties, the 
expansion was en- 
tirely along the 
river, following the 
line of commerce. 
The little town of 
Algiers, on the 
river, opposite the 
second munici- 



pality, began to develop its marine work- 
shops. 

European Immigration, 
with New York the influx 
grants to western lands; 
1850, they averaged 30,000 

Modern Improvements, 
in 1833 (Chap. NVL). 




TDE TOCBO BLOCK, CASAL STBKET, IN 184*. 
Th. Tl.- .0 fl.n.l WW} I. from R...I 1° &>.«.. .. t». .or.h .ule . -b... ^USf^gS^Hgm *,*"«« "' 

'• tifty •!e»ml>o»ts 111 



of I-oni.iBU»»iiB.ir. ^.OtWIihrt-.. TIIBJOI II ionn.it i m ,", **,'"-"',',,. f„ r(v . ,A hftr ■u«anil>o»ls Itiof al lh« e»*«. r/beir 



''•"""'••jr,^;:;:»s o %oS^^o?,^^K^;Kiv..vv;«bo;v: 



b.ok*. Willi no QKK'l'S't.C:ipit 



(.ANAL STREET, ROVAL TO BOURBON. 



New Orleans shared 
of European immi- 

between 1845 and 
per year. 

Gas was first used 
Water Supply and 
Drainage, (Chap. 
III.). Telegraph, 
(Chap. V.). Rail- 
way, (Chap. V.). 
Paving, (Chap. 
NVL). 

Union of Munici- 
palities. The union 
of three municipali- 
ties and the City of 
Lafayette soon fol- 
lowed. The city 
was governed by a 
m a y o r and two 
chambers, aldermen 
and assistant alder- 
men; there were a 



34 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 




ORLEANS ALLEY. 



comptroller, surveyor, and street commissioner. 
By April 1, 1853, this government had paid off 
over $4,000,000 of the city debt. The rotunda 
of the St. Charles Hotel took the position for- 
merly held by the St. Louis Bourse and became 
the city's unofficial guild hall. 

Commerce, 1840- '60. In 1842, receipts from 
the interior were valued at $45,700,000; they 
increased rapidly, and in 1851 were estimated 
to be worth $107,000,000. The tobacco trade 
was given new life. One-tenth of the arrivals 
by sea were steamships. This trade was car- 
ried on, despite the danger facing vessels en- 
tering the river. In the space of a few weeks 
in 1852, forty ships went aground at the en- 
trance to the river. The terrible yellow fever 
scourges of 1853- '55 reduced the volume of the 
trade. This was regained, and a high-water 
mark reached in 1857. The financial crash fol- 
lowed. Fifty-eight mercantile houses failed, 
and in the course of the next year forty-five 
more. But the failures in New Orleans were 



as nothing to those in New York, which re- 
corded 1,321, and in Boston, 376. Imports and 
exports were reduced $36,000,000. 

Education. The Public School system was 
established in 1841; then occurred a period of 
Library development, (Chap. XII.). 

Homes. The homes of this period varied 
from the slave's cabin to the palatial mansion 
in the Yieux Carre. The homes of the Amer- 
icans provided the comforts afforded by the 
times, but were devoid of luxuries. French 
mirrors, beautiful carpets, handsome furniture, 
fine china and silverware were found in 
wealthy houses in the old city. The Americans, 
more frugal than their neighbors, were more 
engrossed in making money than in money 
spending. The houses were lighted of an even- 
ing by candles and oil lamps; the former were 
often supported in handsome candelabra 
(girondoles) trimmed with scintillating crys- 
tal drops; the oil lamp was ever on the center 
table. Young ladies dressed by the light of 
candles held by the slave girls at different 
needful angles. The furniture was covered 
with haircloth meant to withstand the ravages 
of time. Of all famed pieces of furniture of 
those days, the most noted is the four-posted 
bed, sometimes piled so high with mattresses 
as to call for a miniature step-ladder with 
which to scale its sides; the "tester," to quote 
Mrs. Ripley, "was ornamented with a wall 




TYPICAL HOMES IN* THE YIEUX CARRE. ERECTED DURING 
THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Note the handsome wrought-iron balustrades. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



35 



paper stuff, a wreath of impossible red and 
yellow roses, big as saucers, stamped on it, and 
four strands of same 
roses reaching to the 
four corners of the mon- 
strosity"; some "swells 
had testers covered 
with silk." Open fire- 
places with a crane 
served in the kitchen 
until about 1840, when 
stoves began to be 
used. The households 
were very busy; all sew- 
ing was done at home; 
there were no ready-to- 
wear garments then ; 
even the men's shirts, 
elaborately tucked and 
beruffled affairs, col- 
lars and cuffs were 
made at home. The 
cast-off clothes of the 
larger were turned out 
as the Sunday best of 
the smaller members of 
the family. 

Hotels. An impor- 
tant feature of New Or- 
leans in ante-bellum 
davs, was the brilliant 
hotel life. The habit of 
the planters in bringing 
their families to the city 

for the festivities of the winter season devel- 
oped this mode of living. This life centered 
about the St. 
Charles Hotel, 
in the Second 
Municipality, 
and in the St. 
Louis Hotel in 
the old town. 
These were 
the first of the 
great Ameri- 
can hotels and 
became mer- 
cantile and 
political, as 
well as social 
centers. Noted 
1 r a v e 1 e r s first st. charles hotel. 





praised the St. Charles enthusiastically. Oakey 

Hall wrote of it: "Put the St. Charles down in 

St. Petersburg and you 
would think it a pal- 
ace; in Boston, and 
ten to one you would 
christen it a college; 
in London, and it 
would marvelously re- 
mind you of an ex 
change; in New Or- 
leans, it is all three." 
Lady Wortley, an Eng- 
lish literateur and 
traveler, declared she 
had not found a finer 
piece of architecture in 
the new world than its 
wonderful d o m e and 
( 'orinthian portico. The 
St. Charles was de- 
stroyed by fire in 1851, 
but immediately re- 
built, though on a lesser 
scale; the famed dome, 
which was second in 
size in the United States 
only to that of the Cap- 
itol in Washington was 
omitted from the new 
edifice. This rotunda 
had been the great 
center of the city's life. 
Parlor P. was one of the 

great political centos outside of Washington. 

The Old St. Louis, like the Old St. Charles, was 
grander than its successor; Canova had 
decorated the splendid rotunda. It was 
burned ten years before its rival, and 
was immediately rebuilt. Society gath- 



COURTYAltn IN VIEUX CARRE. 




.Ii ST l."l IS HOTEL. 



36 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



ered here for some of the most famed balls in 

its history. Here, in the winter of 1842- '43, was 

given the wonderful subscription ball in honor 

of Henry Clay, when 200 

guests were entertained at a 

ball and supper at a cost of 

$20,000. 

Lake Resorts. Three 
lake resorts were opened 
up during this period, name- 
ly, Milneburg, Spanish Fort, 
and one a few miles above 
West End. Hotels and res- 
taurants nourished at all. 
Spanish Fort occupied the 
site of the old fort erected 
by Governor Carondelet for 
the defense of the entrance 
to Bayou St. John. It was 
at Milneburg that friends 
and admirers of the great 
English novelist, William 
Makepeace Thackeray, en- 
tertained him at a sumptu- 
ous dinner. 

Clubs. Club life began 
in New Orleans in 1832 with 
the organization of the Elkin 
Club. Its headquarters were 
in a hostelry at the mouth of Bayou St. John 
The aristocratic Old Pelican Club, with its rival 
the Orleans Club, succeeded the Elkin Club. To 
day club organizations 
like the Boston, Pick- 
wick, etc., finance the 
famous Carnival 
pageants for which New 
Orleans is celebrated ; 
and the Elks and others 
father many worthy 
charitable enterprises. 

Steamboats on the 
River. As travel to 
New Orleans was possi- 
ble only by water, and 
that required a fair 
amount of time, steam- 
boats became commodi- 
ous, elegant. They were 
large and airy and had 
huge saloons extending 
their full length, with 
highly polished floors 




OLD ST. CHARLES THEATRE 



for the enjoyment of the dancers. The cuisines 
were of the best; the skill of the chefs being 
widely known. Visitors to New Orleans, when 
possible, boarded on the boat 
on which they had made the 
trip, instead of taking up a 
residence in the city; es- 
pecially was this true at Car- 
nival time. The building of 
the railroads drove the pala- 
tial river boats out of ex- 
istence. 

Theatres. The Orleans 
Theatre, on Orleans, between 
Royal and Bourbon Streets, 
was the home of the opera. 
It was built by subscription 
in 1817;. John McDonogh 
having acquired it later on, 
willed it to the City of Bal- 
timore. It was destroyed 
by fire in 1868, but the fa- 
mous ballroom that ad- 
joined it was saved and used 
as a criminal courtroom 
from 1872 until the court's 
removal to St. Patrick's 
Hall. Opera of the first or- 
der was sung to large and 
appreciative audiences. Not to have a box or 
seats at the opera was a cause of social ostra- 
cism. Operas were given on four nights in the 




FRENCH OPERA HOUSE, ERECTED IN' 1869. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



37 



week, the fashionable evenings being Tuesday 
and Saturday; nights when there was no opera, 
the drama held the boards. Ludlow introduced 
English plays the very first year of the theatre's 
existence, hut English drama did not flourish 
until 1820, when .lames H. Caldwell took charge 
of the St. Philip Street theatre. Caldwell was 
the personal exponent of the most progressive 
spirit of the city; he was an Englishman of 
handsome and charming manners, brilliant, 
clever, able; in England he had mingled with 
such noted actors as the Kembels, Keans, 
Cooper, Booth, and the like. He organized a 
theatrical troupe of known talent (Booth, 
Barret, Russel among the members), and came 
to the United States. They tried Richmond, 
Virginia, then came to New Orleans. Booth was 
the leading actor and, with Mrs. Caldwell, 
played in French as well as in 
English. In 1823, Caldwell erect- 
ed a theatre in Camp Street, able 
to accommodate 1,100 people; to 
this, he moved his troupe from 
the Orleans Theatre. He met 
with great financial and dramatic 
success. In 1824. he lighted this 
theatre by means of gas. Edwin 
Forrest began his great theatri- 
cal career in the Camp Street 
theatre. In 1835, Caldwell had 
the St. Charles Theatre built, at 
a cost of $350,000; it was then 
the largest in the United States; 
the building was noted for the 
wonderful chandelier, over two tons in weight 
and supporting two hundred gas-lights, that 
was suspended from the center of the building. 
Four years later, the Camp Street theatre was 
closed. Mr. Caldwell was not only a promoter 
of theatres and the highest form of English 
drama, but also of other city improvements; 
he was the founder of the St. Charles Hotel and 
the gas works. 

3. WAR TIME AND RECONSTRUCTION 
DAYS. 

Outbreak of Civil War. The Republican 
party had won in the presidential election, and 
thereupon South Carolina passed an ordinance 
of secession. Casting her lot with the other 
Southern States, Louisiana seceded January 26, 
1861, and sent her ablest sons to the front. 




I WII.S H. CALDWELL. 
From bronze t>ust in Louisiana State 

Museum. 



New Orleans as a Strategic Point. New Or- 
leans sent over 5,000 of her best, soldiers to the 
defense of the northern line of the Confederacy. 
The southern government seemed oblivious of 
the city's location; not so, the Washington 
authorities. Two expeditions were set afoot for 
securing the Mississippi to the Union; one under 
Grant, to descend the river, the other under 
Farragut and Butler to ascend it. 

Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. 
Grant was slowly but surely pushing his way 
down stream. Farragut, with a fleet of forty- 
three vessels, was entering the river from the 
Gulf. In vain, General Lovell asked for assist- 
ance; none could he given him. He did his best 
to obstruct the passage of the Federal fleet by 
having cables put across the river below the 
city; old vessels were linked together and set 
ablaze. Farragut succeeded in 
passing the two poorly armed 
forts and making his way up to 
the city, which, because of the 
high water, he was able to sweep 
with his guns. General Lovell, 
recognizing the uselessness of 
fighting, retreated. The city 
front blazed with the fire from 
the thousands of bales of cotton 
and hogsheads of sugar and mo- 
lasses which the citizens burned 
to prevent the Federals obtain- 
ing. 

Military Rule. General Butler, 
with 15,000 soldiers, took charge 
of the city on May 1, 1862. Mayor Monroe was 
put out of office and a military commandant ap- 
pointed in his place. The City Council was 
replaced by the Bureau of Finance and the 
Bureau of Streets and Landings. Butler's rule 
in New Orleans has ever been execrated by the 
people of the city and condemned by the out- 
side world as disgraceful; he was removed be- 
fore the year expired. The city's commerce had 
been reduced by the war to a diminutive trade 
in war supplies with the neighboring territory. 
Cotton sold in 1864 at $1.63 per pound, and 
sugar at 26 cents. The end of the war caused 
the immediate renewal of commercial inter- 
course with other parts. 

Reconstruction Acts. The Republican Con- 
gress decided that the Southern States should 
he regarded as conquered territory, recon- 
structed, and readmitted into the Union. First 



38 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



of all, the new freemen were to be secured in 
the enjoyment of their citizenship and suffrage. 
The white men of the state were virtually de- 
prived of the use of the ballot by all the restric- 
tions placed upon its exercise. 

Misrule. As is the case after most 
wars, a host of undesirable individu- 
als, seeking to make fortunes by easy 
means, followed in the wake of the 
victorious northern army. They be- 
came known as "carpetbaggers," as 
the southern people of a like class re- 
ceived the appellation of "scala- 
wags." In New Orleans, they be- 
came the leaders of the voting popu- 
lace — largely composed of the new- 
ly enfranchised negroes — and thus 
gained control of the government. 
The city's property was literally 
stolen. By 1872, the extravagant ex- 
penditures had reached $(3,961,381 and 
the bonded debt $21,000,000, on some 
of which ten per cent, interest was 
being paid. The city issued an enor- 
mous amount of valueless "city currency" with 
which the officers and Public School teachers 
were paid. Taxation rose to 2 7f Koo per cent, in 
1871. This government maintained itself by 
means of the "Metropolitan Police," especially 
organized for the protection of the officials, and 
a rigid system 
of espionage 
conducted 
against those 
o p p o s ed to 
their rule. 

September 
14, 1874. The 
citizens of 
New Orleans 
had formed 
the "White 
League " for 
the expulsion 
of the carpet- 
bag govern- 
ment. To 
frustrate their 
plans, an order was issued that forbade a citizen 
to keep a firearm even in his home, a thing per- 
mitted by constitutional right. It was learned 
that a ship with a cargo of ammunition for the 
League was to arrive on September 14th. The 




MONUMENT IN MEMORY OF 

THE MEMBERS OF THE 
WHITE LEAGUE. 

Who Fell in Conflict Sep- 
teraber 14, 1874. 




HARBOR OF NEW ORLEANS, 1873* 



Metropolitan Police formed at the foot of Canal 
Street and the levee with mounted cannon to 
prevent the citizens from reaching the vessel. 
The "White League" moved out Poydras 
Street to the levee until they faced the Metro- 
politans. A skirmish followed, with 
the result that the Metropolitans fled, 
suffering the loss of many of their 
members. 'The "White League" lost 
sixteen. In memory of the citizens 
who lost their lives, a monument was 
erected at the foot of Canal Street, 
where had stood the Metropolitans' 
cannon. The "White League," by 
gradual successes, finally restored the 
citizens to the control of their city. 

Improvements. It was impossible 
for any progress to be made under the 
prevailing conditions. The city un- 
dertook the operation of the water 
works in 1869. Paving the streets 
with wood was tried and, as it proved 
a failure, abandoned. A drainage 
system was projected in 1871, but be- 
cause of its costliness and the ruinous condition 
of the city's finances, was shortly after given 
up. The Board of New Orleans Park Commis- 
sioners bought the Upper City Park, now 
Audubon Park, in 1871, at a cost of $80,000. 
Population. From 168,755 in 1860, the popula- 
tion increased 
to 191,418 in 
1870. This was 
due in great 
measure to the 
incoming of 
freed negroes 
from the coun- 
try districts. 

Expansion of 
City Limits. 
In 1870, two 
districts, the 
Fifth and 
Sixth, were 
added by the 
annexation of 
the town of Al- 
giers, on the opposite side of the river, and of 
Jefferson City, a town adjoining the Fourth Dis- 
trict, the former City of Lafayette. By the addi- 
tion of Carrollton, in 1874, as the Seventh Muni- 
cipal District, the city attained its present limits. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



39 



4. MODERN PERIOD, 1874-1919. 

Premium Bonds. With the victory of the 
Regular Democracy in electing Charles Leeds 
as mayor in 1874, the carpetbag government 
may be said to have been ended. The bonded 
debts reached $20,000,000 in 1875. Real estate 
had depreciated; business in general had 
greatly declined. A crisis had come in the 
city's affairs. Edward Pilsbury was adminis- 
trator of the Department of Finance ; he formed 
the Premium Bond plan; by this, all the city 
bonds were funded into bonds of $20, bearing 
five per cent, interest when drawn by lots. By 
this system the annual interest was reduced 
from $1,416,000 to $307,500. Pilsbury suc- 
ceeded Leeds as Mayor in 1876. 

Board of Liquidation. In 1880, the Legisla- 
ture created a board to see to the liquidation, 
reduction, and consolidation of the city's debt. 
Thus the payment of the city debt was taken 
out of the hands of the city officials. 

Improvements 
Before the Ex- 
position. The 
telephone was 
introduced in 
1876, and two 
years later the 
first line was 
constructed. A 

little later, the various lines in operation were 
joined into the New Orleans Telephone Ex- 
change for the purpose of intercommunication. 
The Carrollton Railroad was franchised and 
the New Orleans and Pacific Railroad was 
granted the batture in front of the Audubon 
Park. With money derived from the gambling 
houses of the city, an almshouse was erected at 
a cost of $100,000 and named in honor of Mayor 
Shakespeare. The greatest of all improvements 
was that at the mouth of the river. In 1879, 
Captain Eads completed the jetties in South 
Pass, begun June 2, 1875; from seventeen and 
a half feet, the water on the bar was deepened 
to thirty feet. The benefits to commerce were 
innumerable. According to the United States 
census of 1880, the population had increased to 
217,140. 

Return to Aldermanic Government. The 
people became dissatisfied with the Bureau sys- 
tem, said it was too expensive, anrl demanded 
a return to the old aldermanic form of govern- 




ment. So, in 1882, the Legislature passed an 
act changing the city's form of government. 
Under the new charter, the executive officers 
were Mayor, Treasurer, Comptroller, Commis- 
sioner of Police, and Commissioner of Public 
Works, each receiving a salary of $3,500. The 
Council was composed of thirty members. 

Cotton Centennial Exposition, 1884. An ex- 
position was held in New Orleans to celebrate 
the hundredth anniversary of the first exporta- 
tion of cotton; in 1784, a few bags had been sent 
to England from Charleston, South Carolina. 
The Fair Grounds were in the Sixth District and 
comprised seventy-five acres. The main build- 
ing was larger than any that had yet been 
erected at an exposition. The Horticultural 
Hall, which had been left standing, was entirely 
destroyed by a hurricane in September, 1915. 
The exposition was one of the causes of the 
opening of the Sixth District. 

Principal Improvements Before 1900. Elec- 
tricitv for street lighting was introduced in 

1884; Royal 
Street from 
Canal to Esplan- 
ade was thus 
lighted. St. 
Charles street 
was paved with 
asphalt in 1884. 
Four years later, 
the erection of the present Criminal Court 
House and parish prison was begun; St. Pat- 
rick's Hall, the former domicile of the Crim- 
inal Court, was some years later made to serve 
as a Public Library by the removal of the Fisk 
and Public Libraries to it. The Orleans Levee 
Board was organized, as well as the Public 
Library Board. A paid Fire Department re- 
placed the Volunteer Corps in 1891. In this 
year, the New Orleans and Louisiana Construc- 
tion and Improvement Company undertook the 
management of the city wharves for ten years, 
but their excessive charges caused the state to 
purchase their rights in 189(1 ; the Legislature 
created a Board of Commissioners of the Port 
of New Orleans to manage the wharves. Two 
railroads received grants along the river front, 
the Illinois Central and the Louisville and Nash- 
ville. The former received a grant in the Sixth 
District and soon erected the Stuyvesant Docks 
and large grain elevators; the latter was al- 
lowed to run their tracks on the levee below 



CENTRAL BUILDINO. COTTON CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION. 



40 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Canal Street and build a depot at the foot of 
Canal. In return for these privileges, the cor- 
porations had to maintain the levees within the 
limits of their grants. The present drainage 
system was begun in 1899 and put into opera- 
tion in 1900, in which year, also, an ordinance 
was passed providing for a City Public Belt 
Railroad. The neutral ground on Canal Street 
was paved. In the centennial year, the city 
took another step toward municipal ownership 
of public works by taking over the control of 
the markets. 

Public Works. The city's present policy 
tends towards municipal ownership of public 
works, so as to operate them at cost for the 
benefit of the citizens. For light and paving, 
see Chapter XVI.; for water and drainage, see 
Chapter III. 

Realty Improvements. The Cotton Centen- 
nial Exposition inaugurated the development 
of the city's real estate by drawing attention 
to the desirability of sites in the Sixth District; 
extension of the street car system, street light- 
ing, and paving have united to open up the out- 
lying sections. Modern development was then 
first begun in the Sixth and Seventh Districts. 
The Second District then came to the front; all 



the land between the cemeteries and the lake 
was cleared, drained, paved, and lighted; trees 
and palms were planted along the streets; and 
now Lakeview is a rapidly growing and pretty 
suburb. Extending northeast from City Park, 
really a continuation of Metairie Ridge, is Gen- 
tilly Terrace, one of the most beautiful of New 
Orleans' many garden spots. The tract of land 
beyond Gentilly and along Lake Pontchartrain 
to slightly east of Little Woods was devel- 
oped by the New Orleans Lake Shore Land 
Company; between this and Chef Menteur is the 
Michand Tract, which is being improved in like 
manner, by drainage and splendid shell roads, 
so that lots now sell at the former price of 
acres. The United States Government, by the 
erection of the Naval and Immigration Sta- 
tions, has contributed to the development of 
the Fifth District. A great plan is now in prog- 
ress for the improvement of the Jefferson- 
Plaquemines Drainage District; 11,500 acres are 
within the limits of Algiers. Bayou Barataria 
is the natural drain of this district, and, with 
Harvey Canal, almost makes an island out of 
the land in the river's bend. A dam has been 
constructed across Bayou Barataria, where it 
is joined by Harvey Canal; huge pumps erected 




OLD STYLE STEAMBOAT LANDING. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



41 



at this point are to lift the water across the 
dam into the bayou. New Orleanians may 
enjoy farm life on the banks of Bayou Bara- 
taria and yet be within twenty or thirty minutes 
of the heart of the business section, by way of 
the road alongside the New Orleans Southern 
and Grand Isle Bailroad, the Jackson Avenue 
ferry and car line. Metairie Bidge is a de- 
lightful suburb outside the city limits, in Jef- 
ferson Parish. 

Commission Form of Government. In 1912, 
by special act of the Legislature, the city's 
government was changed, a modified form of 
the Commission Plan of Municipal Government 
being adopted. (See Chapter XV.) 

Present Financial Condition of the City. 
The city's bonded debt increased to $37,937,- 
568.50 in 1913. This increase is due to the 
city's undertaking the operation of her own 
sewerage and water system and the Public Belt 
Bailroad; the former added between $16,000,- 
000 and $17,000,000 and the latter $2,000,000 or 
$3,000,000 to the city's debt, The tax receipts 
for 1918 were $7,315,805.70 on an assessment 
of $332,536,623.00. 

Federal Bank Established. The Federal 
Beserve Act of December, 1913, separated the 



United States into districts in each of which one 
city was to be designated as a Federal Beserve 
City because of the establishment therein of a 
Federal Beserve Bank. Atlanta received the 
apportionment of the district in which New 
Orleans was located. As the convenience and 
customary course of business of the Crescent 
City was thus interfered with, the district was 
readjusted and a Federal Bank was established 
in New Orleans. 

Centennial Celebration of the Battle of New 
Orleans. January 8, 1915, the hundredth anni- 
versary of the Battle of New Orleans, marked 
also a century of peace between the two great 
English-speaking nations of the world, Great 
Britain and the United States. With eharaoi 
teristic hospitality, New Orleans entertained 
representatives of King George V. of England, 
the Canadian Government, and distinguished 
Americans. The walls of the old Cathedral 
re-echoed the chant of the solemn Te Deum as 
they had one hundred years before, military 
and civic parades recalled the spirit of Jackson 
and his followers, and the ladies of 1815, as well 
as the heroes of battle, seemed to live again in 
the "tableaux vivants," presented as a fitting 
climax to the celebration. 




SHIPS AT THE WHARVES. 



42 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



TOPICS: Section 1, French Domination: 1. Louisiana 
before 1718; 2. Proprietorship of the Company of the 
West; 3. New Orleans, 1731-1763. Section 2, Spanish 
Domination: 1. Manifestation of the Spirit of Liberty; 
2. Establishment of Spanish Control; 3. Spanish Devel- 
opment of New Orleans; 4. New Orleans in 1800. Sec- 
tion 3, Transition Period. Section 4, American Domina- 
tion: 1. New Orleans, 1803'15; 2. Prom 1815-'60; 3. War 
Time and Reconstruction Days; 4. Modern Period. 

REFERENCES: Bossu, Travels through that part of 
North America formerly called Louisiana (translated by 
John Reinhold Forster) ; Charlevoix, History and General 
Description of New Prance (edited by John Gilmary Shea) ; 
La Harpe, Journal Historique de l'Etablissement des 
Francais a la Louisiane, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831; Le Page 
du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane; Reuben Gold Thwaites, 
The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents; King and 
Ficklen, Stories from Louisiana History; Claiborne, "Mis- 
sissippi"; Bunner, History of Louisiana, 1841; Early 



Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi, Albany, 1861; B. M. 
Norman, New Orleans and Environs, 1844; A. Oakey Hall, 
The Manhattaner in New Orleans, 1S51; Jewell's Crescent 
City, 1873; Waring and Cable, History and Present Con- 
ditions of New Orleans, 1880; Guide and Sketch Book to 
New Orleans, 1885; Andrew Morrison, New Orleans and 
the New South; F. X. Martin, History of Louisiana; 
Phelps, Louisiana; Charles Gayarre, History of Louisiana; 
Alcee Fortier, History of Louisiana; Walter Fleming, 
Documentary History of Reconstruction, etc.; The South 
in the Building of the Nation; Rightor (editor), Standard 
History of New Orleans; T. W. Campbell, Manual of the 
City of New Orleans, 1900; Grace King, New Orleans — 
The Place and the People; Eliza Ripley, Social Life in Old 
New Orleans; Publications of the Louisiana Historical 
Society; De Bow's Review, 1846-'59 and 1867 to '68; 
Stanley C. Arthur, The Battle of New Orleans, published 
by the Louisiana Historical Society; New Orleans Direc- 
tories; Newspaper files of the Bee, Picayune, and Times- 
Democrat. 



MAYORS OF NEW ORLEANS. 



1803— Etienne Bore. 
1804 — James Pitot. 
1805— John Watkins. 
1807— Joseph Mather. 
1812— Nicholas Girod. 
1815— Aug. McCarthy. 
1820— J. Rouffignac. 
1 828— Dennis Prieur. 
1838— Charles Genois. 
1840— Wm. Freret. 
1844 — Edgar Montegut. 
1846— A. D. Crossman. 
1854 — John L. Lewis. 
1856— C. M. Waterman. 



1858— Gerard Stith. 
1860— John T. Monroe. 
May, 1862— G. F. Shepley. 
July, 1862— G. Weitzel. 
Aug., 1862 — J. H. French. 
Sept., 1862— H. C. Deming. 
Nov., 1862— J. F. Miller. 
July, 1864— Stephen Hoyt. 
May, 1865 — Hugh Kennedy. 
March, 1865— S. M. Quincy. 
June, 1865— Glendy Burke. 
1865— Hugh Kennedy. 
1866 — John T. Monroe. 
1866— E. Heath. 



1868— J. R. Conway. 
1870— B. F. Flanders. 
1872— L. A. Wiltz. 
1874— C. J. Leeds. 
1876— Edward Pilsbury. 
1878—1. W. Patton. 
1880 — Jos. A. Shakespeare. 
1S82— W. J. Behan. 
1884— J. V. Guillotte. 
18SS — Jos. A. Shakespeare. 
1892— John Fitzpatrick. 
1896— W. C. Flower. 
1900— Paul Capdevielle. 
1904 — Martin Behrman. 




JACKSON SQUARE AS IT IS TODAY. 



CHAPTER III. 

Drainage — Sewerage — Filter Plant. 
1919 



Sanitary improvements are of vital im- 
portance in progress, and the three great sys- 
tems of sewerage, water, and drainage have 
helped New Orleans in the race for civic ad- 
vancement. 

New Orleans' Problem. In the construction 
of these works, New Orleans, owing to the flat 
surface, faced its greatest municipal problem. 
High water in the river is above the highest 
land in the city. The natural drainage is away 
from the banks of the river, and generally to- 
wards the lakes to the north. The level of Lake 
Pontchartrain is the level of the sea, but the 
accumulation of waters along its south shores, 
owing to the influence of continued north and 
northeast winds, often reached several feet 
above that level. "Without artificial aid, New 
Orleans would always be flooded by the rains 
falling upon it and running to it from the river 
slope, and also by the high lake tides backing 
into the low part of the inhabited area. 

Early Attempts at Drainage. In the early 
colonial days, Governor Perrier found it nec- 
essary to construct a levee in fronl (if the city. 
Some attempts at drainage were made by the 
governors, Vaudreuil and Carondelet. The 
Carondelel Canal, (Old Basin) after its com- 
pletion to the Bayou St. John, drained a greal 
part of the old city limits. By 1S."!S, a natural 
drain in the rear of the Second Municipality 
had been broadened and deepened into the Mel- 
pomene Canal, giving some relief to the then 
new portion of the city. From 1871-73, consid- 
erable work was done in the excavation of 
drainage canals. In 1880, the city depended for 
its drainage upon a rude form of pumping 
machines similar to those used in Holland. 
These machines were solely for the purpose of 
removing surface water from the streets and 
the house lots. The gutters were dee]) channels 
from two to three feet wide, but were more or 



less filled with tidal water from the Lakes and 
helped little in the drainage. By 1895, enough 
construction work had been carried out by pri- 
vate drainage companies to demonstrate the 
practicability and the cost of drainage and 
sewerage. 

Inception of the Present Development in 
Drainage and Sewerage Systems. It was not 
until 1895, that the city took upon itself to de- 
sign an effective drainage system. Construc- 
tion work was begun in 1897 but no adequate 
financial provision had been made to complete 
it. The people of the city were beginning to 
believe that they must have a sewerage and a 
water works system as well as drainage. This 
sentiment grew because the epidemics of 1897, 
1898 and 1899 were vital in their effect on trade 
and growth. Finally, in 1899, after a campaign 
in which the Era Club did a vast amount of 
educational work, a law was passed providing 
for a bond issue. Property holders voted for 
a tax to meet the payment of these bonds. 
Women property owners voted for the first 
time. This law also created a board for the 
execution and the subsequent management of 
the three systems. 

Effects of Improved Drainage. About 1900, 
the work had proceeded far enough in the con- 
struction of a main drainage system to remove 
as rapidly as it fell a rainfall of moderate in- 
tensity, thus preventing the supersaturation of 
the soil and giving it a chance to dry out. 
Lands before worthless became at once avail- 
able for agricultural or city development. Mos- 
quitoes decreased, and gutters — if only cleaned 
out— drained to their bottoms. The death rate 
dropped from 27.2 per 1,000 to 22 per 1,000. 
The area now drained is from the Mississippi 
River to Lake Pontchartrain, and from the 
upper to the lower Protection Levee. The 
drainage of New Orleans has convinced the 



u 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



world that the millions of acres of marsh land 
surrounding the city can easily be reclaimed 
and put under cultivation. 

The Capacity of the Drainage System. The 
drainage system consists of about 38 miles of 
masonry lined and covered main drains and 300 
miles of covered lateral drains connected there- 
with and of 50 miles of open canals from all of 
which the water is pumped; and of about 20 
miles of high level outfall canals into which the 
water is pumped, the latter discharging either 
into Lake Pontchartrain or into Lake Borgne. 
The system is constructed and operated so as to 
produce artificially the necessary slope. Seven 
great pumping stations cause the water to flow 
into and through the canals. The total drain- 
age i lumping capacity is over 7,000,000,000 gal- 
lons per day. The drainage system is designed 
to send all dry weather and small storm flow 
into Lake Borgne, and only the flow from great 
storms into Lake Pontchartrain. 

Reasons for Separating the Sewerage and 
Drainage. It was considered undesirable to dis- 
charge the sewage of the city into tidal or lake 
waters. A small flow of sewage in the large 
storm water drains would not move rapidly 
enough to reach the outlets without fermenta- 



tion, which would cause objectionable condi- 
tions in the drains. Owing to the great amount 
of work required and the cost, the construction 
of one system of sewerage and drainage would 
have taken many years. It was desired within 
the shortest possible time to sewer the five hun- 
dred miles of inhabited streets. 

Operation of the Sewerage System. In order 
to accomplish the desired results, a system of 
sewers was designed composed of main, sub- 
main, and lateral sewers. These lead to ten sep- 
arate pumping stations with good slopes or falls 
from the higher end of the sewers to the pump- 
ing stations. The largest portion of the sewers 
drain directly fcy gravity to the principal pump- 
ing station. Remote ones drain to other pump- 
ing stations, and some of the sewage passes 
through two pumping stations before it reaches 
the principal station, from which it is dis- 
charged into the river. Seven of the intermedi- 
ate lift stations are operated by electricity from 
the main station, automatically starting and 
stopping their pumps as the sewage flows into 
them. These stations raise the sewage from a 
low level sewer on the suction side to a higher 
level sewer on the discharge side; and the flow 
of sewage to and from them is just as much 




MAIN WATERWORKS PUMPING STATION AND DRAINAGE POWER HOUSE No. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



45 



by gravity as if the sewers had the usual 
gravity outlet. 

Time Taken for the Construction of Sewers. 
The construction of the sewers was begun in 
June, 1903, and they were ready for operation 
in October, 1907. Practically the entire popu- 
lated area of the city is now sewered and 
nearly all premises on the line of a sewer are 
connected. 

The Water Supply. In 1810, an attempt was 
made to establish water works, which were of 
the most primitive character. The pipes were 
hollowed cypress logs and the water supply was 
obtained from the river by slave labor. The 
slaves pumped the water into a large reservoir 
from which it was distributed through the 
hollow logs to such citizens as had subscribed. 
The majority of the people depended upon 
cisterns or wells. In 1833, the Commercial Bank 
was organized, its purpose being to establish 
water works in New Orleans. The cypress log 
pipes were replaced by iron ones. A few cement 
pipes were used but proved unsatisfactory. The 
charter of this company expired in 1869, and the 
city bought the water works, issuing bonds for 
that purpose. Owing to bad management and 
lack of funds, the city, in 1877, gave the 



monopoly to the New Orleans Water Works 
Company for fifty years. 

The Water Supply Problem. The water sup- 
plied by the New Orleans Water Works Com- 
pany was pumped directly from the Mississippi 
River without any purification and was so 
muddy as to be entirely unfit for most uses. A 
filter plant built for said company in 1892 was 
not successful, was not accepted, and was never 
put into regular use. Coincident with the de- 
sign of the sewerage system a study was begun 
of the water problem. Many held that the puri- 
fication of the Mississippi River water, so as 
to convert it into a safe and acceptable water 
supply, was an impossibility; and that the only 
solution was to go north of Lake Pontchartrain 
for a water supply. Others believed that a 
sufficient and satisfactory artesian supply could 
be found. 

Experimental Purification Tests. The Mis- 
sissippi River is very muddy and moderately 
hard; its chemical and sanitary conditions are 
excellent. Between 1892 and 1900, the methods 
of treatment which were applicable to the eco- 
nomical purification of very muddy, clay-bear- 
ing waters were greatly developed. In 1900, the 
Sewerage and Water Board made a thorough 




VIEW SHOWING NAPOLEON AVENUE DRAINAGE CANAL IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION 



46 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



study of these methods at an experimental 
plant, built at Audubon Park. Here the proper 
methods to be applied to the Mississippi Eiver 
water at New Orleans were fully determined. 

Water Works Plant. The water works plant, 
covering about seventy acres or twenty-sis city 
blocks, was begun in 1905 and put into opera- 
tion in 1908. The water works intake is at the 
extreme upper end of the city. The system of 
purification is sedimentation, coagulation (the 
coagulants being lime and sulphate of iron) and 
filtration. The water is first pumped from the 
river into the grit reservoirs where the coarser 
suspended matter, mostly sand, is removed by 
sedimentation. From here, the water passes 
into the lime-mixing reservoirs; then into the 
coagulating reservoirs where the process of 
sedimentation is .completed, and the water is 
softened and prepared for filtration. The filters 
are merely gravity sand filters designed to 
handle large quantities of water, and to be 
easily and cheaply cleaned. The entire cost of 
treating and filtering the water, and pumping 
it into the distribution system is not over two 
cents per thousand gallons, and the cost of 
water delivered through meters is less than the 
prices paid in other metered cities. 

Methods of Water Distribution. New 
Orleans being almost flat, there is no possi- 
bility of a reservoir at high elevations into 
which water can be pumped, and from which 
the supply can be drawn. The pumps of this 



plant can be adjusted to maintain whatever 
pressure is desired; and will automatically in- 
crease and decrease their output to maintain 
the pressure for which they are set, and to de- 
liver the quantity of water which is being 
drawn from the mains. Pressure, maintained in 
this way, is as satisfactory as if it were supplied 
from a high level reservoir. The distribution 
system consists of four-inch pipes to forty- 
eight-inch mains and covers 600 miles of streets. 
There are 5,500 fire hydrants. The pressure is 
sixty-live pounds per square inch, which is 
ample for first class fire protection. The present 
capacity of the pumping system, including Al- 
giers, is 100,000,000 gallons per day; the present 
daily consumption averages about 32,000,000 
gallons. 

The Cost and Effect of the Three Systems. 
The three systems combined have cost about 
$32,000,000. Malarial infection has ceased to 
exist; the city has improved conditions of liv- 
ing and provided adequate fire protection; use- 
less tide-level swamps have been developed 
into beautiful city suburbs. The world realizes 
that New Orleans is now a healthful city, in no 
manner handicainped by unsanitary conditions. 

TOPICS: The New Orleans Problem; Inception of the 
Present Development in Drainage and Sewerage Systems; 
Effects of Improved Drainage; Capacity of the Drainage 
System; Operation of the Sewerage System; The Water 
Supply Problem; The General Operation of the Plant. 



REFERENCES: 
Board. 



Reports of the Sewerage and Water 



CHAPTER IV. 



Health Conditions. 



New Orleans offers many advantages to those seeking health or longevity. Chief among 
these is its delightful climate, which does not only favor, but actually fosters, outdoor living. 
However, before the city could become healthful, the surrounding swamps had to be drained 
and mosquitoes destroyed. By installing an artificial system of draiuage and reclaiming the 
swamp lands, the disadvantages of a low altitude were overcome. These achievements were so 
notable as to attract the attention of the whole country. 



SECTION 1. EARLY HISTORY OF SANITATION IN NEW ORLEANS. 



First Sanitary Measures. One of the earliest 
sanitary measures was the cutting of the trees 
between the river and the lake by order of 
Governor Perrier, so that the fresh lake breezes 
might sweep the settlement. This work was 
not finally completed until during the Civil 
War. It was Governor Perrier, also, who 
caused the first levee to be built before the city, 
thus saving it from annual overflow and greatly 
advancing the work of sanitation. 

Drainage. In the early days of the history 
of New Orleans, there were open ditches along 
some of the streets and a wide ditch surround- 
ing the city. But this form of drainage proved 
unsatisfactory. 

Carondelet Canal. The Spanish Governor, 
Carondelet, strove to improve conditions by 



constructing a canal from the city to the lake. 
Work was begun in 1794 and completed in two 
years. The government sought to interest the 
people in land improvement. To this end, lots 
along the canal were offered at very low rental 
to all who would drain them and keep the 
property in good condition. 

Vaccination. The colony, in common with 
all places, was frequently visited by small pox. 
In the latter part of the eighteenth century, Dr. 
Jenner, an English physician, discovered that, 
by inoculating people with the virus of cow- 
pox, they would be protected against the dread 
disease. This was called vaccination, and its 
use began in Louisiana in 1802. Since then 
small pox is no longer a menace. 



SECTION 2. EPIDEMICS. 



Yellow Fever. It is not exactly known when 
yellow fever first made its appearance on the 
continent. Before the coming of the white man, 
the Indian tribes were decimated by a malig- 
nant fever, thought by those familiar with their 
traditions to have been yellow fever.- French 
settlers from the West Indies brought this fever 
into Louisiana in 1701, and again in 1704, the 
year in which the famous Tonti fell victim to 
its ravages. Though it was present in the col- 



ony from time to time after that, no record of 
cases of deaths was kept until 1796, when the 
first real epidemic occurred. There were seri- 
ous epidemics in 1853 and 1878; and there were 
years when there were not even slight recur- 
rences of the disease. 

Ignorance of the fact that mosquitoes carry 
the disease prevented the use of proper reme- 
dial measures. Besides, facilities for a good 
system of quarantine were lacking. In those 



48 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



days the Federal Government had not yet 
evolved the system now carried out by the 
Public Health Service and was, therefore, not 
prepared to meet its responsibility in protecting 
the port of New Orleans, and indirectly the 
whole country, from this scourge. 

The Mosquito Theory. It is now an estab- 
lished fact that diseases are transmitted by cer- 
tain insects: typhoid fever by the fly, bubonic 
plague by the flea, malaria and yellow fevers by 
the mosquito. This does not mean that these 
insects are the originators of the disease; they 
are merely carriers of the germ which must 
have been obtained from some infected source. 
All this has been proven beyond the possibility 
of a doubt, by investigations and tests costing 
vast sums of money, and even life. 

During the Spanish-American War, more 
men were carried off by fevers than by actual 
conflict. This high death rate caused the 
United States Government to ajDpoint a com- 
mission, in 1900, to investigate the causes of 
yellow fever and to give exhaustive tests to the 
different theories of its origin and transmission, 
particularly the mosquito theory which had 
been experimentally proved by Dr. Carlos 
Finlay of Cuba, in 1882. This commission was 
headed by Major Walter Eeed. Experiments 
were made on volunteer human subjects, one of 
whom was Dr. Lazear, a member of the com- 
mission. Unfortunately, Dr. Lazear succumbed 
to the disease. The result of the study of these 
scientists is the knowledge that yellow fever is 
transmitted by the striped-legged, cistern-bred 
mosquito and that the only practical means for 
exterminating it is to prevent breeding by re- 
moval of the stagnant water in which the eggs 
are laid or by oiling water and preventing the 
larvae, wiggle-tails, from securing a supply of 
air. . 

Health Measures. Within recent times, the 
installation of a sub-surface drainage, reclama- 
tion of outlying swamp land, abolishment of the 
cistern, improved maritime quarantine, and the 
funiigation of ships which, incidentally, de- 
stroys the full grown mosquito have reduced 
the number of mosquitoes and made the recur- 
rence of a yellow fever epidemic impossible. 

Epidemic of 1905. During the epidemic of 
1905, the plan of attack of the New Orleans 
Board of Health under the leadership of Dr. 
Kohnke followed the lines indicated above. An 
Isolation Hospital was established and the 



campaign of eradication turned over to Dr. 
Joseph H. White of the United States Public 
Health and Marine Hospital Service. This was 
done because of the greater resource of this 
Service and the experience of its sanitary en- 
gineers in yellow fever districts of the tropics. 
Four-fifths of a fund of $320,000 contributed 
from the state, city treasurer, and by private 
citizens was placed at the disposal of the Fed- 
eral Officer. The improved method of handling 
the epidemic brought the total number of deaths 
down to 452, ten per cent, of which were im- 
ported from outlying infected districts. 

This epidemic gave a great impetus to the 
sanitation of the. city and the completion of the 
sewerage and drainage systems; it also taught 
the people many facts in disease prevention 
and hygiene. 

Cholera. Located near the Gulf of Mexico 
and accessible to tropical countries in which 
fevers are endemic, it is not surprising that the 
city, back in 1832, was visited by an epidemic 
of Asiatic cholera. To-day, there is no possi- 
bility of a repetition of this scourge, as wells 
and cess-pools have been abolished and sani- 
tary water, drainage, and sewerage installed. 

Bubonic Plague. In the summer of 1914, 
an unknown Scandinavian was taken ill at the 
home of the Volunteers of America, and, after 
several days, removed to the Charity Hospital, 
where his malady was pronounced bubonic 
plague. There had been cases of plague in 
Havana for several years, but careful quaran- 
tine had kept it out of New Orleans, this being 
the first case on record. No concealment was 
practiced. The facts in the case were pub- 
lished, other States notified, and citizens in- 
structed in eradication of it. The confidence of 
other cities was retained and business suffered 
no interruption. 

Campaign Against Rats. In plague epi- 
demics elsewhere, scientists learned that rat- 
fleas transmit the disease to human beings. 
Therefore, there was need of a war on rats. 
Taking the Home of the Volunteers of America 
as a focus, a district of the radius of four 
squares was marked off as the infected area, 
where rat-extermination was to begin. The 
inmates of the Home were isolated in a per- 
fectly rat-proof building until the time required 
for the disease to develop had passed. A large 
rat-catching force was set to work in the dis- 
trict marked off; those caught were immersed 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



49 



in kerosene to kill the fleas, and then sent to 
the Board of Health laboratories for bacterio- 
logical examination to determine if they were, 
or were not, infected. In this way, sanitary 
measures could be applied where needed, and 
an epidemic prevented. 

Ratproofing. As the matter was of vital 
importance not only to the City of New Orleans 
but to the entire nation, it was deemed expedi- 
ent to turn the campaign over to Surgeon Gen- 
eral Rupert Blue of the United States Public 
Health Service, who had made an extended 
study of the plague and successfully combatted 
it in Honolulu and San Francisco. An ordinance 
was passed by the Commission Council requir- 
ing all premises to be ratproofed; that is, all 
buildings must be so constructed that rats can- 
not live in the walls or floors, and all rubbish 
where they might find shelter must be de- 
stroyed. The enforcement of the ordinance was 
left to the Federal Officers. The total number 
of deaths from plague was ten, and the last 
ease was reported September 10, 1915. Thus 
the efficacy of modern sanitary and preventive 



measures was demonstrated. The war on rats 
continued through 1916-1917 and the number 
was diminished by hundreds of thousands. 

Influenza Epidemic. Iu the fall of 1918, 
several eases of influenza were imported into 
Boston. From there the disease rapidly spread 
over the United States, assuming proportions 
of an epidemic. In New Orleans it raged dur- 
ing the last months of this year and the begin- 
ning of the next. Strenuous measures were 
adopted to combat it, among them the closing 
of schools, churches, and amusement places. 
The Elks opened an Emergency Bureau, from 
which physicians, nurses, medicine, and food 
were sent to afflicted people. The Orleans Par- 
ish Medical Society established an Emergency 
Bureau for physicians and nurses. An Emer- 
gency Hospital was opened in the Touro Alms- 
house to care for the overflow from other 
hospitals. The work here was directed by the 
Red Cross. The Knights of Columbus opened 
their hall to convalescents and all philanthropic 
and charitable agencies co-operated in allevi- 
ating distress. 



SECTION 3. MARITIME QUARANTINE. 



Establishment of the Quarantine Station. 
The Quarantine Station was first established at 
English Turn in 1821, but the system was very 
lax, as was evident from the frequent visita- 
tions of yellow fever and other tropical diseases 
foreign to this country. In fact, at times there 
was no quarantine at all. Alarmed by the ex- 
perience of 1853 and 1854, the Legislature in 
1855 appropriated $50,000 for a new Quarantine 
Station about seventy miles below the city. 
But even then the enforcement was lax or alto- 
gether nil. It was not until 1885 that a thor- 
ough system of maritime sanitation was inaugu- 
rated by Dr. Joseph Holt, President of the 
Board of Health. This was improved by his 
successor in office, Dr. Clement P. Wilkin- 
son. Other state and local health authorities 
hastened to inaugurate this system. 

Station Sold to the Federal Government. In 
1906, the Quarantine Station was sold to the 



United States for $100,000, and is now con- 
trolled by the United States Public Health Ser- 
vice under the Treasury Department. The sta- 
tion forms one of a series of bulwarks against 
the enemies of public health, more important 
than forts or outposts, for the invasion of an 
armed force is seldom threatened, but disease 
is always a menace. 

How the Federal Government Guards 
Against the Importation of Disease. The United 
States Public Health Service has officers in all 
foreign ports. These officers send to Washington, 
D. C, complete records of health conditious in 
the localities wdiere they are stationed, with spe- 
cial reference to quarantinable diseases, name- 
ly, yellow fever, small-pox, Asiatic cholera, bu- 
bonic plague, and typhus fever. The Treasury 
Department issues weekly bulletins containing 
these reports, besides which, telegraphic notices 
of any special danger are sent to all Maritime 



50 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Quarantine Stations in the United States. A 
ship arriving from an infected or suspected 
1 Kirt is thoroughly fumigated and detained long 
enough for any possible cases to develop. The 
time of detention varies according to the dis- 
ease quarantined against. If there is no mani- 
festation of disease, after the required number 
of days has elapsed, the ship is allowed to make 
port and disembark passengers and cargo. 

Time and Money Saved by the Modern 
Method of Quarantine. Careful fumigation of 
ships subject to quarantine and examination of 
passengers is all that is now necessary if there 
are no suspicious cases on board. Sometimes 
even the fumigation is dispensed with, when the 
authorities have sufficient assurance that neith- 
er crew nor passengers have been exposed to 
infection. Thus there is very little delay or 
expense to shipping since the new plan was 
inaugurated, and commerce is not diverted to 
other ports unnecessarily. 

Vigilance Against Yellow Fever. Any ship 
coming from the tropics or yellow fever zone 



during the months when that disease is preva- 
lent must be detained six days after fumiga- 
tion. Yellow fever symptoms become evident 
within six days after a person has been exposed 
to the disease. In order to save as much time 
as possible, the United States officer in the for- 
eign port often fumigates the vessel at the hour 
of leaving. That plan reduces the time of de- 
tention by the number of days spent at sea. Of 
course vessels out at sea more than six days do 
not have to be detained at all. Fruit vessels, 
on account of their perishable cargo, are not 
fumigated, but are required to carry physicians, 
who are responsible for the health of all on 
board, and for the enforcement of all quarantine 
regulations. 

Other Cities Adopt the New Orleans Method. 
New Orleans was the first city to adopt this 
system, based on the scientific fact that certain 
diseases take a specific time to develop. San 
Francisco was second in its use and was soon 
followed by New York. 



SECTION 4. SANITARY IMPROVEMENTS SINCE 1803. 



Sanitary Improvements. As early as 1817, 
Governor Claiborne suggested quarantine. He 
was forced to abandon his plan because public 
opinion was so bitterly opposed to it. Many 
eminent physicians of the day did not believe 
in the importation of disease, and considered 
quarantine ridiculous. Governor Villere was, 
however, more successful, establishing a Quar- 
antine Station and a Board of Health in 1821. 
Both enjoyed a very checkered career, being 
dissolved and re-established many times. The 
work of the Board of Health has been more or 
less continuous since 1855. 

Dr. C. B. White, who was President of the 
Board of Health in the seventies, inaugurated 
a sanitary campaign in New Orleans and intro- 
duced the disinfection of premises with carbolic 
acid. The Auxiliary Sanitary Association was 
organized after the epidemic of 187S. They es- 
tablished a system of flushing the gutters, all 
open at that time, with water from public 



hydrants and with water lifted by a steam pump 
erected for that purpose. They also furnished 
the city with boats for the removal of garbage. 
From that time on there has been a steady im- 
provement in sanitation, as is evidenced by the 
gradual reduction of the rate of mortality. 

Potent Factors in Sanitation. The most 
powerful factors in attaining and maintaining 
the salubrity of New Orleans have been: 

1. Drainage of adjacent swamps. 

2. Sewerage and Drainage Systems. 

3. Water supply. 

. 4. Paving of streets. 

5. Cleaning of city and removal of waste. 

6. Effective quarantine. 

7. Health legislation by State and City 

Boards of Health. 

8. Enlightenment of the masses in the mat- 

ter of sanitation and personal hygiene. 

9. Rat-proofing. 

(4 is considered in Chapter XVI.) 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



51 



SECTION 5. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. 



State Board of Health. With the wonderful 
progress of medical science and with the realiz- 
ation that most diseases are preventable, epi- 
demics of tropical diseases have become a 
matter of history in all modernized communi- 
ties. Always conservative, Louisiana was slow 
to adopt preventive measures until the weight 
of public opinion and the pressure of neighbor- 
ing states forced the adoption of effective quar- 
antine and organized health work. A State 
Board of Health was organized in 1855, but re- 
organized in 1898; since then, with limited re- 
sources, it has steadily labored to improve con- 
ditions in Louisiana. The last five years, 1910 
to 1915, have marked a wonderful advance in 
sanitation, relieving Louisiana of the stigma of 
insalubrity and unprogressiveness. People do 
not live in unhealthful surroundings through 
preference, but through ignorance. The Louisi- 
ana State Board of Health Laboratory Car with 
its assemblage of sanitary objects and appli- 
ances, pathological specimens, motoes, and 
working models, is a concrete embodiment of 
the best ideals for which medicine stands. It 
aims to give ocular proof of the conclusions of 
science and to impart facts in hygiene and 
preventive medicine. This educational work 
of the Board is supplemented by medical lec- 
tures given to schools and organizations and 
by copious free publications for use by school 
children and the general public. The State 
Board of Health shapes legislation to the end 
of promoting the physical well-being of all resi- 
dents of the State. There are many excellent 
regulations to their credit, among them being 
those in regard to public drinking cups, 
common towels, habit-forming drugs, barber 
shops, etc. 

Sanitary Inspection. In order that all sani- 
tary regulations may be properly enforced, the 
Board has a regular system of inspection. 
Score cards containing questions which may 
vary according to the nature of the place to be 
visited are furnished the inspector. This 
officer fills out the blanks, points out viola- 
tions of regulations, takes samples, and makes 
seizures. All cards are sent to the head office 
where they are graded and filed. Notices are 



then sent to owners and managers with a time 
limit set for improvement, after which, if the 
regulations are still violated, vigorous prosecu- 
tion follows. In the City of New Orleans, the 
City and State Boards co-operate in these in- 
spections. Many places have been temporarily 
closed until the regulations have been complied 
with. 

This rigid inspection has caused great im- 
provement in the dairies of the suburbs. The 
small top milk pail has been introduced. The 
campaign against insanitary markets has re- 
sulted in the screening ordinance and the erec- 
tion of several model markets, such as the 
Dryades. The inspection is extended to eating 
establishments and places for storage and sale 
of foods. The regulations here aim to insure 
clean and safe foods to the consumer. 

All public buildings, including prisons, are 
inspected once a year or oftener and health 
regulations enforced through the proper con- 
trolling body. 

Rural sanitation is looked after with the 
same zest as urban, with the result that health 
standards have been materially raised over the 
State. 

Food and Drug Laws and Regulations, and 
Net Weight and Measure Laws. In 1906, the 
State Legislature passed the first food and drug 
law, authorizing the State Board to make rules 
governing the manufacture, sale, and inspec- 
tion of foods, drugs, liquors, and waters, insofar 
as they might affect the public health. Further 
laws have since been enacted against the mis- 
branding of foods, drugs, etc., and also requir- 
ing all foods sold in package-form to bear the 
net weight of the measure or contents. 

The Food and Drug Department of the 
State Board of Health, therefore, looks into 
food adulteration and misbranding, and regu- 
lates the sale of habit-forming drugs. Foods 
are adulterated if any substance has been sub- 
stituted for the article, if any valuable con- 
stituent has been taken out, if any substance 
has been added to reduce or lower or injuriously 
affect its quality or .strength, if any poisonous 
or deleterious ingredient has been added or if 
it consists in whole or in part of filthy, decom- 



52 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



posed animal or vegetable matter. For example, 
milk may be adulterated by watering, by skim- 
ming, by having added to it a chemical to 
preserve it, or by becoming sour. All canned 
goods having puffed or swelled ends are adul- 
terated, since the contents are nearly always 
spoiled. Foods and drugs are misbranded if 
the label contains any statement regarding the 
ingredients which is false or misleading in any 
particular For example, cotton seed oil 
labelled "olive oil," patent medicines bearing 
false curative claims, or any packages labelled 
with incorrect weight or measure are mis- 
branded. 



Habit-forming 



drugs, 



such as morphine, 



opium, cocaine, and their compounds, cannot 
be sold ex- 
cept under 
the prescrip- 
tion of a 
physician. 
The sale of 
poisonous 
drugs is also 
regulated. 
The State 
Board has se- 
cured the co 
operation of 
t h e Times- 
Picayune and 
the New Or- 
leans Item in 
the matter of 
permitting it 
to censor all 
drug adver- 
tisements. 

The food and drug department has an in- 
spection force, a laboratory, and analysts. It 
makes a specialty of the analysis of water sup- 
plies for schools and communities, and, on appli- 
cation, sends a sanitary engineer to any com- 
munity contemplating the installation of a 
sewerage and water system. 

The State Board of Health conducts a 
bacteriological department where examination 
of specimens for consumption, malaria, hook- 
worm, diphtheria, and typhoid fever are made. 




FRENCH MARKET BEFORE RENOVATION 



The department sends free anti-typhoid vaccine 
when called for by physicians. 

The Department of Vital Statistics is under 
the control of the Board of Health and is con- 
ducted by the State Registrar. This Depart- 
ment keeps a record of births, deaths, and all 
cases of illness reported. In 1918 the State 
was admitted into the registration area for 
deaths. 

Besides these varied activities, there is a 
force of men for the inspection of oils, which, 
by explosion or combustion, might endanger 
life or property. No fuel or illuminating oil 
that would ignite below 125° Fahrenheit can 
be sold in Louisiana, and all receptacles con- 
taining oil to be sold must bear the signature 

of a Board of 
Health In- 
spector. 

The De- 
partment of 
Child Hy- 
giene, one of 
the most im- 
port a n t in 
the State 
health organ- 
ization, is 
equally a c - 
five. It co- 
operates 
with t h e 
Chi ldren's 
Bureau of 
the United 
States and 
local agen- 
cies in mat- 
ters pertaining to the health and physical wel- 
fare of children and initiates independent 
measures for their care and protection. 

Indirectly through the work of physicians, 
the State Board of Health controls all health 
work in the State by exercising a supervisory 
and restrictive jurisdiction. This it does by de- 
termining the qualifications of physicians and 
by granting and withdrawing licenses to prac- 
tice. For mal-practice or quackery, a physi- 
cian's license may be revoked at any time. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



53 



SECTION 6. CITY BOARD OF HEALTH. 



Organization. The City Board of Health 
was established by the Legislature in 1898, 
making h distinct from the Slate Board. The 
act establishing the commission form of gov- 
ernment for the City of New Orleans provides 
for a Board of Health consisting of five mem- 
bers, one to be the Mayor, one the Commis- 
sioner of Public Safety, and three other mem- 
bers at large to be chosen by the Commission 
Council, at least one of whom shall be a 
physician licensed to practice medicine in the 
Parish of < >rleans. 

Maintenance. 
This board is 
maintained b y 
appropriations 
a m ounting in 
1916 to about 
$89,000, and rev- 
enues obtained 
from fees, fines, 
cic, amounting 
in the same year 
to about $45,900. 
Prevention of 
Contagion. One 
of the most im- 
portant activi- 
ties of the 
guardians of 
public health is 
the care of com- 
municable dis- 
eases. Physi- 
cians are required by law to report all such 
cases to the Board of Health, where, by a care- 
fully planned system, the exact city block in- 
fected is watched, and the progress of the case 
is noted. The house occupied by a patient 
suffering from a contagions disease is posted, 
and quarantine maintained until the premises 
are fumigated by officers of the Board of Health. 
During the period of contagion, health in- 
spectors visit the premises to ascertain that all 
requirements as to disinfection are observed. 




FRENI II MARKET AFTER REXO\ \TI<>\ 



A house to house inspection of the nine blocks 
surrounding the point of infection is made. All 
Board of Health inspectors are empowered to 
arrest those who violate the sanitary or- 
dinances. 

Food Inspection. As a large proportion of 
sickness is caused by poor or tainted food, the 
duty of inspecting food supplies devolves upon 
health officers. Dairies, bakeries, confection- 
eries, abattoirs, markets, restaurants, and 
hotels, come under special supervision. Nu- 
merous and detailed ordinances requiring a 

high standard of 
sanitation are 
enforced in New 
Orleans. As an 
illustration 
some of those 
regulating the 
opi ■ration of a 
dairy will be 
given. Before a 
dairy m a y b e 
opened, a permit 
m nst be ob- 
tained from the 
Board of Health, 
whoso duty it is 
to see that sani- 
tary require- 
ments are met 
and that the 
water supply is 
pure and ade- 
quate. Veterinarians examine the cows. Sam- 
ples of milk and other dairy products, taken 
at irregular intervals, are subjected to chemical 
tests to ascertain the presence of adulterants, 
pi'eservatives. or impurities. (See Chapter IX 
for meat inspection.) 

All restaurants, hotels, and other eating or 
refreshment places are subject to inspection 
without notice. Kitchens, store rooms, refrig- 
erators undergo a thorough examination, and, 
unless they meet the required standard, the 



54 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



places are closed until they receive a cleaning 
satisfactory to the health authorities. The 
owners are fined for violation of health or- 
dinances. 

Bacteriological Department. Besides a 
chemist, the board employs the services of an 
expert bacteriologist, a doctor who has made 
the study of germs a specialty. Sometimes, a 
physician is doubtful of the nature of a disease, 
for many germ diseases are similar in their 
early stages. Suppose he suspects a case to 
be diphtheria; he takes a culture from the 
patient's throat, that is, wipes it out with a 
little swab. This is sent to the bacteriologist, 
who, by a microscopic examination, proves or 
disproves the presence of the disease. The doc- 
tor is then enabled to proceed with the treat- 
ment, instead of waiting for more pronounced 
symptoms. 



Department of Vital Statistics. This de- 
partment may be justly regarded as the 
barometer of public health, whereby we may 
compare conditions of past years with the 
present. Louisiana has been admitted to the 
registration area for deaths. This puts her in 
the class of progressive states and helps in her 
material advance, because these statistics are 
relied upon by prospective settlers. Birth regis- 
tration has been stimulated by the activities of 
the Child Welfare Association. This function 
of civil life has been promoted in the interest 
of better supervision and protection of chil- 
dren. Records in the books of the Board of 
Health are also used in establishing parentage 
and claims to inheritance. The statistical work 
is made complete by recording all deaths and 
their causes. 



Curve of Death Rate from Malaria in City of New Orleans Covering 32 Years, 1880-1911, 
Based on Estimated Population from United States Census, Adding 

Each Year 10% of Ten Years' Increase. J. B. Guthrie. 















































































































































130 




































































170 




































































160 




































































iso 




































































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130 




































































120 








































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110 
































































ft 




100 
































































$ 




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80 




































































70 
































































5 




60 
































































£ 




50 
































































5 




W 
































































41 




30 




































































20 




































































10 









































































































































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112 











































































































































THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 
MORTALITY RATE, 



55 



Showing the High Death Rate Years Ago, the Improved Conditions of the Past Decade, and 

the Constant Decline in Rate in Each Decade. 



GENERAL DEATH RATE PER THOUSAND OF POPULATION. 



1809- '19 52.95 

1820- '29 48.55 

1830- '39 63.55 

1840- '49 51.59 

1850- '59 60.49 



1860- '69 40.22 

1870- 79 37.77 

1880- '89 27.62 

1890- '99 ; 27.05 

1900- '09 21.04 

1913 19.8 



DEATH RATE OF 1916 (LOWEST ON RECORD). 

White 14.13 

Colored 28.87 

White and Colored 18.11 

Deaths From Prominent Causes — 1908-1917. 



CAUSES OF DEATHS. 



No. of Percentage of 
Deaths. Total Deaths. 



Heart Diseases 12,263 .17 

Tuberculosis 9,809 .135 

Blight's Disease 5,769 .08 

Diarrheal Diseases 4,733 .065 

Pneumonia 4,124 .055 

Cancer 3,200 .044 

Senility 1,116 .015 

Typhoid Fever 857 .011 

Diphtheria and Croup 598 .008 

Malarial Fever 330 .004 

Whooping Cough 276 .0038 

Measles 245 .0034 

Scarlet Fever 138 .0019 

Smallpox 24 .0003 




■ 
■ 
I 



Non-residents 
Excluded. 



12.53 
24.72 
15.82 



Total Deaths From These 
Causes .....43,482 

Total Death From All 
Causes 72,097 



Biennial Report of Board of Health for the Parish of Orleans 
and City of New Orleans. 



56 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 7. REMOVAL OF GARBAGE. 



Old System. The proper disposal of waste 
matter can hardly be over-rated as to its effects 
on the sanitary condition of a community. The 
old method practiced in New Orleans, of haul- 
ing all garbage to the river front to be loaded 
on boats, which carried it to a point below the 
city, there to be dumped into the river, has been 
done away with by national legislation. 

System in Use. The system adopted, and at 
present in operation, is that of dumping such 
refuse into the outlying lowlands. All garbage 
must be kept in tightly closed cans which are 
placed out upon the sidewalk early each morn- 
ing, except Sundays. A train of carts carries 
it from individual premises to the Public Belt 
Railroad, by which it is transferred to cars 
running out into the swamps and deposited in 
the vicinity of Bayou Bienvenu. 

The High Temperature Destructor. Such a 
system is necessarily only temporary, as the 
lands are gradually being drained and occu- 
pied by the surplus population of a growing 
city. This was duly recognized by the city 
authorities who made a careful study of the 
subject. Having arrived at the conclusion that 
the use of the high temperature destructor is 
the most economical and effective method of 
disposal, after the necessary legislation, they 



contracted for the installation of the Cobwell 
system of dehydrator and reducer. The appa- 
ratus consists of a huge receptacle for the gar- 
bage, where, by forced draughts, the tempera- 
ture, averaging from 1800° to 2000° Fahrenheit, 
destroys everything, and reduces all glass and 
metals to clinkers. All obnoxious odors are con- 
sumed, so that it might be constructed in the 
heart of the city without causing discomfort to 
the residents. By the high temperature, enor- 
mous steam power, easily converted into elec- 
trical energy, can be produced. Now that the 
close of the war has released labor and material 
and there is no longer an injunction against the 
establishment of large-scale improvements, the 
work is forging ahead. 

Street cleaning is done under direction of 
the Department of Public Property. A force 
of street cleaners, in white uniforms, works 
during the hours of least traffic. On paved 
streets, the flush system is used and is followed 
up by the sweeping of debris into piles near 
the curb, where it is picked up and carted 
away. On unpaved streets it is proposed to 
have oiling after resurfacing with gravel if 
taxpayers on the street concerned unanimously 
consent to the expense. 



SECTION 8. HOSPITALS AND CLINICS. 



Charity Hospital. One of the oldest insti- 
tutions in the United States is the Charity Hos- 
pital, in charge of the Sisters of Charity since 
L834. Now, the management is in charge of a 
Superintendent, although the Sisters still train 
the lay nurses and care for the sick. 

The ambulance service was added in 1885, 
but, since then, has been modernized. Two in- 
ternes always accompany the ambulance to do 
first aid work. By this rapid relief many lives 
have been saved. 

The Charity Hospital is open to the medical 
students of Tulane University for observation 



and clinical work. This exceptional oppor- 
tunity for study' has attracted many students to 
this department of the University. All indigent 
people are treated gratuitously. There are 
wards for the colored people and the care of 
the best physicians and nurses is bestowed upon 
all. Cases of small pox are not admitted, as 
there is a special hospital for that disease. 

Connected with the Charity Hospital is one 
of the best equipped and most complete hos- 
pitals for children in the United States. It was 
donated by Mrs. Deborah Milliken at a cost of 
$100,000. ' 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



57 



Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital. As 
the science of medicine progresses, there is a 
tendency among physicians to specialize in 
some particular branch. Tn order that those who 
can ill afford treatment by a specialist may not 
be debarred from such advantages, the Eye, 
Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital was opened in 
1889, where free treatment is given. The num- 
bers who grasp this opportunity are large and 
increase from year to year, as so many children 
are found suffering from adenoids, the removal 
of which greatly improves their condition. 

Hotel Dieu. The nucleus of the present 
Hotel Dieu was the Maison de Sante, opened in 
1852 by four Sisters of Charity from Emmits- 
bnrg, Maryland, at the clinic of Doctor Warren 
Stone. He befriended these Sisters during his 
lifetime and left them in possession of his 
property at death. The increasing demand 
upon the services of the gentle Sisters made 
the need for larger accommodations impera- 
tive, which resulted in their removal, in 1858, 
to the present site of the Hotel Dieu. With the 
growth of the institution and advance in medi- 
cal science, they have steadily enlarged their 
opportunities for service to suffering humanity. 
Here, hesides caring for the sick, they conduct 
a most successful training school for nurses. 

Touro Infirmary. Judah Touro, who died 
in 1854, was a Jewish merchant and philan- 
thropist. The bulk of his fortune was left for 
charitable purposes. One bequesl was $80,000 
for an almshouse. Touro also left a building, 
on Levee and Gaieimie Streets, then rented out 
as a private hospital. This gift was to he used 
in organizing a charitable institution for the 
relief of indigent sick. This section of Touro 's 
will was not attended to until 1867, when, dur- 
ing the yellow fever epidemic, the need of a 
Jewish Hospital was keenly felt. About $30,000 
was raised by the Hebrew Benevolent Associa- 
tion, and, in 1868, using some of this money, the 
Infirmary left by Touro was fitted out for its 
proper mission. In the course of time, the old 
building having proven inadequate, it was 
raffled, a large sum realized through its sale, 
and the site of the present hospital was pur- 
chased. This was in 1882. 

Touro Infirmary now has accommodations 
for 265 patients and a free clinic which serves 
260 sufferers daily. In 1917, 7,000 patients were 
taken into the wards and nearly 96,000 treat- 
ments were given in the free clinic. A training 



school for nurses was organized in 1896. The 
last improvement made was the building of 
porch wards for diseases where open air and 
sunshine are imperative. A home, donated by 
Julius Weis, for the aged and infirm is run in 
connection with the Infirmary. 

Toivro Infirmary is supported by donations 
from benevolent people, by fees from patients 
who occupy pay wards, and by an appropria- 
tion from the Commission Council. 

Presbyterian Hospital. The New Orleans 
Sanitarium, now the Presbyterian Hospital, was 
opened in 1886 as a training school for nurses, 
the first in the South. 

Isolation Hospital. In order to further pro- 
tect the public health, the city opened on De- 
cember 21, 1916, an Isolation Hospital. II is 
equipped with all the safeguards, comforts, and 
conveniences known to modern science. Small- 
pox patients are admitted. The recoveries thus 
far have been one hundred per cent. 

New Orleans Hospital and Dispensary for 
Women and Children. This was established in 
1005 by a group of women physicians who 
wished to insure treatment to patients who were 
reluctant to offer themselves for observation 
and study by medical students. With the help 
of public and private funds the work has been 
considerably extended. 

Through the generosity of Mrs. John Dibert, 
New Orleans received a donation of $300,000 
with which to erect a Tuberculosis Hospital. 
This is intended as a memorial to Mrs. Dibert 's 
husband. The hospital will be located at the 
intersection of Tulane and Carrollton Avenues 
and will be equipped with every appliance and 
convenience known to medical science. The 
City of New Orleans will maintain it with the 
help of a fund given by the donor for this pur- 
pose. This beneficence meets a long felt need 
and is highly appreciated by the citizens of 
New Orleans. 

The United Sates Marine Hospital. In 1802, 
the United States government established a hos- 
pital for sailors in New Orleans. No building 
was provided, and the sick, by special arrange- 
ment, were cared for in the Charity Hospital. 
The present location on Henry Clay Avenue and 
Tchoupitoulas Street was secured by author- 
ization of Congress in 1882. There is a group 
of buildings comprising the wards, office build- 
ing, houses for (he surgeons, and laundry, etc. 
Any American seaman in need of treatment is 



58 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



received at the hospital, as is also any foreign 
seaman bringing a request from his consul. 
The hospital belongs to the Federal govern- 
ment and is managed by the United States Pub- 
lic Health Service. 

Clinics. The Touro Infirmary and the 
Charity Hospital maintain an elaborate system 
of free clinics. All the usual types of disease 
treated in this way are represented in the 
patients who visit them. The good done by the 



clinics in removing defects and improving the 
physical efficiency of the poor is incalculable. 
The Tulane Free Dental Clinic is under the 
auspices of Tulane University. Services are 
given free to people unable to pay, to others a 
nominal charge is made. The clinic is equipped 
to treat one hundred cases daily. During the 
late draft eleven thousand cases among soldiers 
were treated, the cost of the material being paid 
by the Bed Cross. 



SECTION 9. HEALTH AGENCIES. 



The Child Welfare Association. This Asso- 
ciation was organized May, 1913. It divides 
the city into districts of approximately ten 
blocks square and in each of these districts 
opens an infant welfare center in charge of a 
trained nurse. At this center, physicians hold 
conferences for mothers and children, and 
nurses instruct the mothers in the care of well 
and sick children. The nurses visit the homes 
once every ten days, and, in case of illness, 
several times, if necessary. Especial attention 
is given to the children of pre-school age, who 
are thoroughly examined and relieved of physi- 
cal defects before beginning school. 

In the five years of its existence the Asso- 
ciation has established twenty milk stations and 
a staff of thirty nurses in as many centers with 
full time service of a baby specialist. There are 
over eight thousand children receiving the 
medical and supervisory care of the Asso- 
ciation. 

So successful has this work been, that, 
while the city was losing one out of every ten 
children, the Association, working in the most 
destitute sections, was losing only one out of 
every two hundred on roll. This record shows 
the effect of scientific care. 



Medical Inspection in the Public Schools. 

The Health Department of the public schools 
is provided with three physicians and a nurse 
who exercise health supervision over the chil- 
dren. The physicians make examination of the 
children if the school locality becomes infected 
or if special cases are referred to them by the 
principal; they also exercise supervision over 
the buildings and grounds and co-operate with 
the City Board of Health in stamping out com- 
municable diseases. They made free vaccina- 
tions of children applying for admission and 
formulate rules for the guidance of school peo- 
ple in health matters. 



TOPICS: 1, Early History of Sanitation in New Orleans; 
2, Epidemics; 3, Maritime Quarantine; 4, Sanitary 
Improvements Since 1803; 5, State Board of Health; 
6, City Board of Health; 7, Removal of Garbage; 8, 
Hospitals and Clinics; 9, Health Agencies. 



REFERENCES: Waring & Cable, History and Present 
Condition of New Orleans, 1880; Rightor (editor), 
Standard History of New Orleans; Augustin, His- 
tory of Yellow Fever; Biennial Reports of the 
Louisiana State Board of Health; Biennial Reports 
of the Board of Health of the City of New Orleans; 
Sanitary Code of the State of Louisiana; Laws and 
Ordinances Relating to Health and Sanitation of 
the City of New Orleans; Kohnke, The Problem of 
Mosquito Destruction in New Orleans. 




PANORAMA OF COMMERCIAL SECTION, VIEWED FROM TOP OF CITY HALL. 



CHAPTER V. 



Systems of Communication. 



SECTION 1. POSTAL SYSTEM— POST OFFICE. 



The post office is a Federal government ser- 
vice for the dispatch of letters, parcels, etc. 
The prototype of the modern postal system ex- 
isted at an early date among the Persians, 
Romans, Aztecs, Chinese, and other peoples, in 
the form of an organized establishment of 
state carriers. In America, the first step in the 
organization of a postal system was the ap- 
pointment in 1639, in the Massachusetts colony, 
of an official to take charge of the delivery of 
letters. The American Congress, in July, 1775, 
appointed Benjamin Franklin as the first post- 
master-general. 

Beginning of the Mail System in New Or- 
leans. Previous to the introduction of the mail 
system, post riders, stage coaches, and steam- 
boats carried the mail to all parts of the United 
States. A mail coach, 
owned by two Orleani- 
ans, ran in 1804-1805 
from New Orleans to 
Manchac Church twice 
a week. A post office 
was established in New 
Orleans by the United 
States soon after its 
acquisition of Louisi- 
ana. Blaise Cenas was 
the first postmaster, his 
commission being dated 
October, 1803. In 1804, 
the ] >ostmaster made 
the announcement that 
the mail would arrive 
in New Orleans every 
Monday and leave every 
Tuesday. In Septem- 
ber, 1810, the mails be- 
gan to arrive and de- 
part more frequently. 
By May, 1811, New Or- 
leans boasted of the 



fast time made by the mails. It took twenty 
days for a letter to reach New Orleans from 
Washington City; to-day, it takes about thirty- 
four hours. 

The railway mail service was inaugurated 
in 1864, after a successful experiment upon a 
few large railroad lines. It has reached a per- 
fection attainable only in a country of great 
extent. This service is one of the earliest ex- 
ponents of classified civil service. The govern- 
ment is contemplating aerial mail service be- 
tween the large cities, but up to February, 1919, 
no definite plans have been formed. 

Postage. Originally, postage was charged 
according to the distance that a letter had to be 
carried. ■ At first, there were no postage stamps, 
and the cost was marked across the face of the 




UNITED STATES POST OFFICE. 



60 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



letter, to be paid by the person receiving it. 
Some letters cost only six cents, while others 
cost as much as twenty cents. Heavy letters 
often cost three or four times that amount. The 
use of adhesive stamps was authorized by Con- 
gress in March, 1847. In 1856, prepayment by 
stamps was made compulsory. In 1863, postage 
on letters was three cents per half ounce, but, 
then, was reduced to two cents per oxmce. Dur- 
ing the period of the World War postage was 
increased one cent. A hill providing for the 
return to the former rate, by June 1, 1919, has 
been passed by Congress. 

The system of registry, adopted in 1855, did 
not attain any degree of excellence until after 
1860. The money-order system was established 
in 1864. Money-orders are exchanged witli most 
of the important countries of the world which 
have money-order systems of their own. The 
introduction of the parcel post, January, 1913, 
was the result of many years of agitation for the 
admission to the mail of parcels of merchandise 
of greater weight than four pounds, and for a 
lower rate on this class of matter. This was the 
first time the Post Office Department inaugu- 
rated a new service and put it into immediate 
operation without trying it on a small scale. 

Under an order issued at Washington, Octo- 
ber 1, 1914, the postmasters of New Orleans aud 
fourteen other cities are directed to assist in 
building up the farm-to-table business of the 
parcel post. The way is thus opened for direct 
dealing between consumers and producers. The 
only middleman in the transaction will he the 
post office and the only tolls will be the cost of 
the stamps. In one or two cities where the plan 
has been tried, newspaper accounts have indi- 



cated its partial failure. Whether it will suc- 
ceed in New Orleans, with its numerous subur- 
ban truck farms, public markets, and wagon 
peddlers, remains to be seen. The wider com- 
petition it makes possible ought to discourage 
any tendency to excessive prices in the local 
markets, jnst as "water competition" discour- 
ages unreasonably high rail rates. 

Postal Savings. The Postal Savings De- 
partment was established in 1911. The deposits 
for the year ending May, 1919, amounted to 
nearly $'248,407, credited to 850 depositors. 

Establishment of Sub-stations. There are 
three sub-stations, — Station A in Algiers, Sta- 
tion B at Napoleon Avenue and Prytania Street, 
Station D at 3214 Dauphine Street, — and every 
neighborhood has a convenient numbered sta- 
tion within its boundaries. 

The free delivery system has been extended 
to the suburbs of the city to those who have pro- 
vided the requirements of paved sidewalks, ex- 
tending from the former line of delivery service 
to their residences, of house numbers, and of 
mail boxes. The business districts now have 
five deliveries a day. 

The Special Delivery system was put into 
operation in 1895. The collection carts were 
introduced in 1899. Since i860, the post office 
had occupied a part of the lower floor of the 
Custom Eouse. This department was moved 
into the handsome building in Camp Street, 
opposite Lafayette Square, in March, 1915. 

TOPICS: Early History of the Postal System; The Be- 
ginning of the Mail System of New Orleans; 
Postage. 

REFERENCES: Nelson's Encyclopedia; Newspaper Files. 



SECTION 2. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 



Early Modes of Communication. The savage, 
who lights a fire so that the smoke may be seen 
from afar by his comrades, is using a telegraph 
such as all men used once upon a time. The sol- 
dier who waves two flags about in a peculiar 
manner is also telegraphing. The heliograph, 
a mirror reflecting the rays of the sun, flashes 
messages to those who can read the signals. 
This latter method is used to-day in some parts 



of California. Electricity, one of nature's most 
powerful forces, carefully kept its secret for. 
ages. Now, that its use is known, man is able 
to achieve wonders. 

No one is absolutely certain as to the name 
of the man who first suggested the electric tele- 
graph. Many clever inventors prepared the 
way. Among these are Volta, Humphrey Davy, 
Michael Faraday, Francis Ronald, Sir Charles 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



61 



Wheatstone, and Sir William Cooke. The last 
two mentioned made, in 1838, the first practical 
telegraph used in England, and from that be- 
ginning her whole national system of tele 
graphic communication has sprung. 

In America, when there arises a demand for 
something vital which shall play an important 
part in national development, science comes for- 
ward to meet the need. When a swifter mode 
of communication between commercial centers 
became necessary, Professpr Morse was able to 
transform into a messenger boy of commerce 
thai mysterious force which Benjamin Franklin 
had captured from the clouds. Morse's alphabet 
and method of telegraphing are used through- 
out America. 

The Growth of the Telegraph System. At 
the beginning of the nineteenth century, there 
was not a line of electric telegraph in the United 
States. To-day, there is a vast mileage travers- 
ing all lands and all seas. "God and man have 
linked the nations together." The growth of 
the system is bounded by less than seventy-five 
years, most of it by the last thirty-five years. 
Edison invented the quadruples system and 
also a means of sending six telegrams simul- 
taneously. 

First Line Into New Orleans. The Washing- 
ton and New Orleans Telegraph Company was 
operated in 1848, and became one of the most 
important Hues in the country. Four other com- 
panies operated lines into New Orleans between 
1856 and 1866. The \Yestern Union, organized 
in Rochester, Xew York, in 1851, had absorbed 
all lines South and Southwest, by I860. Its only 
formidable rival is the Postal Telegraph, which 
was organized in 1883. 

Telegraph Offices in New Orleans. In former 
years, the gravity "Milestone" batteries were 
exclusively used and are still used in small 
towns, but in New Orleans, as in all other large 
cities, these have been replaced by the dynamos. 
There are about one hundred wires from differ- 
ent parts of the country entering the Western 
Union office in New Orleans. Single lines are 
used along the railroad routes, but trunk lines 
are employed between large cities. The wires 
are duplexed and quadruplexed, hence, two or 
tour messages can be sent in opposite directions 
at the same time. The duplex system consists 
of a receiving and sending apparatus at each 
end, which are worked simultaneously without 
interference with each other. For example, New 



Orleans sends a message to Memphis and Mem- 
phis to New Orleans at the same time without 
mixing the signals. The quadruples is a com- 
bination of two duplexes of different designs on 
which Xew Orleans can have two operators 
sending messages to Memphis, and Memphis to 
New Orleans; while Memphis can connect St. 
Louis or Chicago by the automatic repeating 
apparatus on one side, and can send messages 
to New Orleans, while St. Louis or Chicago is 
using the wire. The wires come into the office 
by a switchboard, an apparatus by which the 
chief can locate trouble on the wires between 
stations, and give the necessary instructions. 

Ocean Cables. We owe this remarkable 
means of communication to Cyrus Field, who, 
after several failures, succeeded in putting the 
New World on conversational terms with the 
Old. New ( Irleans sends her cable messages for 
Europe to the Western Union and Postal Tele- 
graph offices in New York, where they are 
transferred to the Atlantic Cable companies for 
transmission to Liverpool and then by land, in 
most cases, to their destination. Disp>atches for 
eastern Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Ocean 
points are sent for transmission to the Pacific 
Cable Company in San Francisco. The Mexican 
and South American cable service is handled 
from Galveston, Texas, but Mexico can also 
be reached by land lines via El Paso and 
Laredo, Texas. The West Indian business is 
done through Tampa and Key West. 

Wireless Telegraph. Marconi's patent was 
applied for in England, in 1896, and obtained in 
1897. Wireless stations are now operated in all 
seaports. The first one in New Orleans was 
erected by the United Fruit Company. There 
are now three wireless stations in New Orleans; 
one, on Metairie Ridge, operated by the Mar- 
coni Company; another, at the Naval Station 
in Algiers; and the third, near City Park, oper- 
ated by the United Fruit Company. 

Note. — By Act of Congress, August 1, 1918, 
all telegraph, telephone, and cable companies 
of the United States passed under the control 
of the government. This control, unless re- 
pealed by Act of Congress, will continue until 
the Trealv of Peace is ratified by the Senate. 

Note for Teacher. — Discuss wireless tele- 
phone. 

TOPICS: Early Modes of Communication; The First 
Telegraphic Lines into New Orleans; Ocean Cables; 
Wireless. 

REFERENCES: Archives of Cabildo. 



62 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 3. THE TELEPHONE. 



History tells us that, as early as 1667, 
Eobert Hooke made sound travel along a 
stretched wire. Philip Reis of Frankfort, Ger- 
many, produced an electric telephone in 1861. 
In 1876, two telephones were patented; one by 
Elisha Gray, the other, by Alexander Graham 
Bell. These two men, unknown to each other, 
applied on the same day at the Washington 
office for their patents. Bell's proved the bet- 
ter instrument, and with many improvements 
is still in use. Thomas Edison has given us one 
of the most important things in the telephone — 
tha carbon transmitter. 

How the Sound Carries. We use the tele- 
phone to change the air waves into electric 
waves, which travel along the wire quicker 
than sound travels from the tongue to the ear. 
The words strike one disc and become electric 
waves; the waves strike another disc and be- 
come words again, because both discs are in 
tune and give off the same sound when the 
wave strikes them. 

The First Telephone in New Orleans. The 
first telephone put into service in New Orleans 
was brought from the Philadelphia Exposition, 
1876. by a member of the firm of Horter and 
Fenner, manufacturers of saddlery and har- 
ness. This firm connected their salesroom on 
Magazine and Gravier with their factory on 
Poydras and Church Streets. Shortly after 
this introduction, the Louisiana Telephone 
Company fitted up an exchange on the top 
floor of the Denegre Building. Their system 
was known as the Magneto System. They em- 
ployed boys seventeen to twenty years of age 
as operators. The switchboards were different 
from the ones used at the present time, and 
the connections complicated and difficult to 
complete. Both persons, when wishing to dis- 
connect their lines, would signal the operator 
with a short ring. If, after the termination 
of a conversation, they failed to notify the 
operator, the connection would remain on the 
switchboard until some one went to a neigh- 
boring telephone and asked the operator to 
disconnect the lines. The first conversation 
held over the telephones of this company was 
in the nature of a concert. One instrument 



was installed at Camp and Gravier Streets 
and the other at the Magazine Market. Sing- 
ers were engaged to sing into the receivers, 
entertaining those at the other end of the line. 
This company soon had about 1100 sub- 
scribers. 

Great Southern Telephone and Telegraph 
Company. In 1883, the Louisiana Telephone 
Company was sold to the Great Southern Tele- 
phone and Telegraph Company. This com- 
pany removed the telephone circuits from the 
housetops and placed them upon cross-arms on 
poles. On January 20, 1883, the boy operators 
were replaced by girls, with the exception of 
the chief night operator and one assistant. The 
style of equipment was changed and the first 
Western Multiple Switchboard installed, with 
a capacity for 1,800 subscribers. The demand 
for service became so great that the modern 
building now known as the Main Exchange 
was constructed. The first private branch ex- 
change was installed for the Cotton Centennial 
Exposition of 1884. 

In 1897, the Cumberland Telephone and 
Telegraph Company acquired the Great South- 
ern. The New Orleans operators handle, every 
twenty-four hours, four hundred and fifty-five 
thousand local calls and seventeen hundred long 
distance calls, through seven exchanges known 
as Main, Hemlock, Galvez, Uptown, Walnut, 
Jackson, and Algiers. 

Description of an Exchange. The exchange 
is a wonderful sight. The walls are lined with 
switchboards, which enable one to talk any 
distance. These boards are covered with tiny 
holes like a bee's honeycomb, each having a 
number. On them are dull glass knobs no 
larger than a shoe button, also having num- 
bers. In front of these boards are the clerks, 
generally women. At their ears they have re- 
ceivers, the part of the telephone which gives 
the message, and under the lips a transmitter 
which sends the message. Both are fitted so 
as to leave the hands free. The moment a man 
lifts his telephone, one of the knobs of dull 
glass on the switchboard lights up. The clerk 
sees the light, looks at the number under it, 
and puts a plug in the hole in the honeycomb 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



63 



having the same number. As soon as this plug 
is put in, the telephone is connected with ex- 
ehange and he tells the clerk he wants to speak 
to Main 179. Quickly, she lifts another ping 
joined to the first one and puts it into the hole 
having the number the man wants. When she 
does this, a bell rings at Main 179; the owner 
of that office takes up his telephone and talks 
hi the man who has called him. When they 
have finished talking, they hang up the re- 
ceiver, the little light goes out, the clerk 
removes the plugs, and the wires are dis- 
connected. 

Tlie volume of telegraphic communication 
lias been enormously lessened by the tele- 



phone. This reduction in telegraphic busi- 
ness results from the substitution of long- 
distance calls. The telegraph remains superior 
for long distances, if the message is taken as 
a unit, but on the base of the number of 
words and time for exchange of messages, the 
telegraph is at a disadvantage. The rates for 
the two methods differ little for medium dis- 
tances. 



TOPICS: The Invention of the Telephone; The Telephone 
in New Orleans; Description of an Exchange; Rates 
of Telephone and Telegraph. 

REFERENCES: City Archives; Pamphlets of Telephone 
Company. 



SECTION 4. STREET RAILWAYS. 



Early History of Street Car Line. As a 

means of public conveyance, the omnibus was 
first used. The first line of street cars in the 
United States was the one established by the 
New Orleans and Carrollton Company, Sep- 
tember 26, 1835. It ran from the corner of 
Canal and Baronne Streets to Carrollton, the 
same route now traversed by the St. Charles 
Belt. The charter given this company author- 
ized it to lay one single track between the above 
named points. It stated that if the majority of 
the inhabitants, through whose 
property it passed, complained of 
it as a nuisance, this company, after 
receiving thirty days' notice from 
the mayor, had to remove the track 
and put the street in the same order 
as before. In 1845, steam dummies 
were placed on this road from Car- 
rollton to Lake Pontchartrain. From Lee Circle 
the ear- were brought down by means of animal 
] M.wer. Rope cables were tried as a means of 
propelling the cars, but, owing to the shrink- 
ing of the rope with the changes of the barome- 
ter, they had to be given up. The fare was 50 
cents from Lee Circle to Carrollton. 

In February, 1893, electricity was adopted 
on this road. In 1899, the track was rebuilt and 
the Canal and Claiborne line was purchased by 
it. The City Railroad Company, formed in 




MULE TRACTION 



June, 1860, commenced to run cars in June, 
1861, from Canal and Rampart via Esplanade 
to Bayou Bridge. These cars were built in 
omnibus style. By June, 1864, this company 
ran the Magazine and Prytania lines to Pleasant 
Street; the Rampart and Dauphine lines to the 
Barracks; and the Canal Street line to the City 
Park and the Cemeteries. The Levee and Bar- 
racks line was opened in 1866. This same com- 
pany purchased the New Orleans City and Lake, 
and the Crescent City Railroad Companies. 
The St. Charles Street Railroad 
Company, organized in 1866, built 
the ( 'arondelet, Dryades and Clio 
lines. It was the first company to 
issue transfers. The Orleans Rail- 
road Company was organized in 
1869, with three lines — -Bayou St. 
John, Broad Street, and French 
Electricity was used on all the main 
1895. 

The New Orleans Railway 



Market. 
lines by 

Present System, 
and Light Company, organized in 1905, now 
operates every street railway in New Orleans, 
besides an electric light plant and a gas plant. 
It controls twenty-nine distinct lines, reaching 
every portion of the city. The nominal far is 
six cents and a limited system of transfers en- 
ables passengers to reach long distances and 
outlying districts without additional cost. There 



64 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



are 218.41 miles of single track, 548 motor and 



besides work cars, wreckers, 
This plant has three generating 



passenger cars, 
sprinklers, etc. 
si a lions for electricity; twenty-three generators 
with a capacity for 60,000 kilowatts. The pas- 
senger traffic in 1918 was 123,932,220 revenue 
and 2(),(i(i(i,129 transfers, making a total of 
L50,598,349 passengers. It furnishes the elec- 



trical current for lighting and power purposes. 
The gas mains run everywhere, gas being used 
for fuel aud heating as well as for lighting. 
The company is now in the hands of a receiver. 

TOPICS: Early History of the Car Lines; The Present 
System. 



REFERENCES: 



Rightor's History; City Hall Archives. 




LATEST TYPE OF ELECTRIC CAR IN USE IN 
NEW ORLEANS. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Trade. 



SECTION 1. SHIPPING. 



Port. The word "port" comes from a Latin 
word, meaning "gate." The term is used to 
designate a place where goods brought to it on 
land are placed on boats to be carried over 
water, or taken from boats to be carried by land. 

Tonnage. The amount of freight a ship can 
carry is called "tonnage." Her freight-carry- 
ing capacity is spoken of as so many "tons 
register." This is because every ship is re- 
quired to have a home port, where she is regis- 
tered; the number of tons she can carry is part 
of her description; this number is found out by 
ascertaining how many cubic feet of space she 
contains. A tonnage tax is collected on her 
arrival in a new country. 

International Regulations. The rules were 
originally made for sailing vessels. "When 
steamships were built, space had to be allowed 
for boilers, engines, and fuel, which space could 
not be used for freight. These deductions are 
by agreement among nations practically the 
same everywhere, and amount to much more 
than the actual space occupied by the machin- 
ery, etc. This lessens the tonnage, and so 
makes the running of the ship cheaper, which 
is a benefit to commerce. The freight on a ship 
is called "cargo." As a matter of fact, ships 
can usually take cargo equal to nearly twice 



their registered tonnage. Ordinarily, a 3,000- 
ton ship will take 5,600 tons of cargo. 

Control by United States Government. In 
the United States, all laws and rules with regard 
to registration, measurement, tonnage dues, and 
navigation are passed by Congress and are 
under its authority. All navigable waters are 
controlled by the United States Government. 

Control of Wharves. All laws and rules 
affecting the wharves and landings are passed 
by the Board of Commissioners of the Port of 
New Orleans, an agency of the State of 
Louisiana. 

Wharves can be constructed only after ob- 
taining permission of the Dock Board, under 
provision of the Constitution. 

Wharves. A ship cannot lie alongside the 
natural shore, because when she has cargo on 
board she sinks deep into the water. For this 
reason, in some places, wharves are built 
straight out, so that, when a ship is alongside, 
her bow is toward the shore. These are called 
piers. Where piers can be built, much Less 
"water front" is needed for the same number 
of ships than where piers are impracticable or 
impossible. The river current is too swift at 
New Orleans for piers, so there are wharves on 
the levees along the river. 



SECTION 2. SEAPORT AND RIVERPORT. 



Combined Seaport and Riverport. New 

Orleans has direct water communication as far 
as Pittsburg on the east, Chicago on the north, 
and Kansas City on the west, and deep-sea 
trade routes to all the principal ports of the 
world. 

Jetties. Though about 110 miles from the 
Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans is rightly consid- 



ered a seaport, for the largest ship afloat can 
enter the Mississippi and ascend beyond New 
Orleans. Until the second half of the nineteenth 
century, sea trade was interrupted by the 
formation of sand bars at the mouth of the 
River. Silt, carried seaward by the strong cur- 
rent, was dropped when the waters of the Gulf 
retarded those of the river. Constant dredging 



66 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



was necessary to maintain a channel. This was 
expensive and inadequate. The commercial 
prosperity of the Mississippi Valley was ham- 
pered by this hindrance to navigation and sev- 
eral disasters occasioned actual loss. 

To improve these conditions the jetties were 
constructed by Captain James B. Eads in the 
mouth of the River, called the South Pass. Con- 
gress appropriated $1,000,000 for the work, 
which was begun in 1875 and completed in 1879. 
The jetties are walls of willow mattresses 
weighted with stones and held in place by 
piling. Debris and silt, brought down by the 
River, gradually filled in all crevices, making 
firm, tight walls. These walls are connected 
with the River banks by dams and run parallel 
with each other 1,000 feet apart. The current 
of the mighty River, thus reduced to a much 
narrower channel, becomes swifter, and, instead 
of depositing sediment across the mouth of the 
River, carries it far into the deep waters of the 
Gulf. The force of the waters scours and con- 
tinually deepens the channel, making dredging 
unnecessary. Like improvements are being 
made at Southwest Pass. 



SECTION 3. HARBOR. 



Size of Harbor. When vessels arrive at 
New Orleans, they can discharge their cargoes 
directly upon the wharves, as the depth of the 
water ranges from twenty to seventy feet 
alongside of the wharves and up to 150 feet at 
low water, in mid-stream. The narrowest por- 
tion of the River opposite New Orleans has a 
width of 2,000 feet. The distance of New 
Orleans from the open sea is an added protec- 
tion to ships in the harbor, for the severe storms 
of the Gulf do not reach so far inland. 

Fresh Water. New Orleans possesses an ad- 
vantage over most seaports in the fact that it 
has a fresh-water harbor. In salt water, the 
hulls of ships become covered with barnacles, 
which injure the ship and retard navigation. 
As the barnacles die and fall off in fresh water, 
a trip to such a harbor saves the expense of 
having the hull cleaned. 

Naval Station. The United States Govern- 
ment maintains a Naval Station on the west 




o 



z 



- 

PS 
z 
n 
pj 






O 

P. 

a 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



67 



bank of the Eiver below Algiers. Political 
differences led to the abandonment and subse- 
quent re-establishment of this station. The 
common opinion is that New Orleans, the near- 
est United States port to the Panama Canal 
and the first city from the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi River, is the most favorable location for 
a naval base in the southern part of the United 
States. The Naval Station is a place of deposit 
for supplies, a coaling station, and a repair 
plant. Since the entrance of the United States 
into the World War, the Naval Station has be- 
come an important base for general military 
and industrial supplies, a training camp for 
sailors, and a Marine Barracks. When the hull 
of a vessel has to be painted or repaired, the ves- 
sel must be raised out of the water. This is done 
by means of a dry dock. A dry dock is a large 
floating platform with walls along two sides, but 
open at either end. These walls contain com- 
partments into which water is pumped to lower 
the platform below the water surface. The ship 
enters the dry dock when there is sufficient 



depth of water. The compartments are then 
emptied and the platform rises, lifting the ves- 
sel out of the water. The United States Gov- 
ernment dry dock at the Naval Station is 
capable of raising out of the water a vessel of 
18,000 tons displacement. 

Immigration Station. Below the Naval Sta- 
tion is the United States Immigration Station, 
which is the largest south of Philadelphia. Its 
purpose is to exclude from the country undesir- 
able aliens. Hence, all immigrants are sub- 
jected to physical and mental examinations, and 
are required to furnish proof of good character 
and means of support. An immigrant, who 
would probably become a burden to the com- 
munity, is returned to the country from which 
he came. 

Factories. As a result of transportation 
facilities to be had near the River, factories 
have been established along both sides of the 
harbor. Numerous canning factories, brewer- 
ies, rice mills, cotton mills, oil and fertilizing 
plants are situated on or near the River. 



SECTION 4. PUBLICLY OWNED WHARVES. 



State Ownership. The wharves at New Or- 
leans have, for the most part, always been public 
property, as, by the Constitution, are all land- 
ings in the state. Formerly, the wharves were 
under the control of the city and were leased 
out, but this plan was not successful, because 
the lessees did not keep them in good condition, 
and charged so exorbitantly for their use that 
business went elsewhere. 

The Board of Commissioners of the Port of 
New Orleans. When it was determined to stop 
the leasing system, all of the wharves were in 
very bad condition and much money was needed 
to make them tit for use. The City, restricted 
by the State Constitution, was in debt for the 
full amount allowed by law. For this and other 
reasons, a new body was formed, called legally 
the "Board of Commissioners of the Port of 
New Orleans," but spoken of alwavs as "The 
Dock Board." 

Power of the Dock Board. To this Board 
was given by amendment to the Constitution 



and by act of the Legislature (Act No. 70 of 
1896) complete control of the wharves and 
harbor. It passes all ordinances for harbor pur- 
poses just as the City Council does for the city 
at large. 

Work of the Dock Board. The Dock Board 
took charge May 29, 1901. The members are 
appointed by the Governor and report to him. 
They serve without pay and elect all their offi- 
cers. The financing has been very successful, 
and there have been built nearly eight miles of 
excellent wharves, most of which are covered by 
steel sheds. 

Terminal Stations. In addition to these 
public wharves, there are several terminal 
stations controlled by different railroad lines. 
At Westwego, on the west side of the River, 
the Texas and Pacific Railroad has two grain 
elevators and about three-quarters of a mile of 
wharfage. On the east side, at Stuyvesant 
Docks, the Illinois Central Railroad has 4,800 
feet of river front occupied by wharf, covering 



68 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



the distance from Napoleon Avenue to Louisi- 
ana Avenue. This provides berth-room for ten 
ships at once. There are two grain elevators 
back of the wharf. The Louisville and Nash- 
ville Railroad has a berth for one ship at St. 
Joseph and Calliope Streets. At the American 
Sugar Refinery, there is room for three ships 
at once. 

Port Chalmette. The New Orleans Terminal 
Company, which is owned by the Southern 
Railway Company, has Port Chalmette about 
six miles below Canal Street, where a grain 
elevator is located, and about a half mile of 
wharf. Below this wharf, there is berth room 
for steamships handling, through pumping 
plants located there, bulk cargoes of creosote 
oil and crude petroleum. 

Chalmette Slip. This Company owns be- 
tween Port Chalmette and the American Sugar 
Refinery what is known as "Chalmette Slip," 
a novel departure from the ordinary construc- 
tion of wharves and berths at this port. The 
Slip, which is enclosed in immense concrete 
walls, extends from the River back into the 
land — a distance of 1,680 feet- — along the sides 
of which are fire-proof freight sheds built of 



steel and concrete construction which provide 
storage room aggregating 548,600 square feet, 
or nearly thirteen acres. 

A sufficient depth of water is maintained in 
the Slip to accommodate the largest steamships 
discharging or unloading cargoes at the freight 
sheds. There is berth and wharf room within 
the Slip for six steamships at one time. 

During the World War, at times there were 
stored in these freight sheds, and in the railroad 
yards adjoining them, as much as 70,000 tons 
of food stuffs, munitions and other war 
material. 

"Pumping Stations." In addition to these 
wharves, there are numerous "pumping sta- 
tions," where petroleum, oil (both crude and re- 
fined), creosote, and molasses are handled both 
in and out. 

Power of the Dock Board Over Private 
Terminals. Under the law, the Dock Board can 
take possession and control of any of these so- 
called "private terminals" at any time it thinks 
the public interest so requires, by paying the 
appraised value for the improvements at the 
time of their being taken over. 




DRY DOCKS AND UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT LANDINGS. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 
SECTION 5. HANDLING CARGO. 



69 



Laborers. The men, who make contracts 
with ships to load and unload them, are called 
stevedores. The laborers, who actually do 
the work, are called longshoremen. One of 
the advantages of New Orleans as a port is 
that the longshoremen do their work better 
than at any other port. They load more cargo 
on a ship and store it better than elsewhere, 
so that voyages from New Orleans are more 
profitable to the ship. 

Liquid Cargoes. The various pumping sta- 
tions handle bulk cargoes of liquid freight with 
great economy and speed, especially oils, creo- 
sote, and molasses. A tank ship bringing a 



million and a quarter gallons of molasses has 
been discharged in sixty hours. 

Grain Elevators. The grain elevators are 
large structures, where quantities of grain are 
stored. By mechanical devices, the grain is 
rapidly and economically loaded upon ships. 

Banana Cargoes. The handling of banana 
cargoes can hardly be improved upon. The sys- 
tem of mechanical conveyors, taking bananas 
out of the ship and delivering them on the 
wharf, works so that nearly ten thousand 
bunches an hour can be taken out of a ship 
working four hatches. Cars are loaded at an 
average rate of one every four or five minutes. 




BANANA CONVEYORS. 



SECTION 6. PUBLIC BELT. 



Size of Modern Cargo. Not very many years ton ship is a small one, there is not room on any 

ago, when ships were built of wood and a 1,000- wharf for a whole cargo. Consequently, it has 

ton ship was a large one, the wharf could easily become necessary for the freight to lie moved to 

hold all the cargo of a ship. Now, when a 3,000- and from the wharf quickly to prevent conges- 



70 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



tion when the ship is discharging, and loss of 
time when the ship is loading. 

Need for Promptness in Moving Cargo. As 
a comparatively small ship costs $500 a day, she 
loses money very rapidly if idle. If the ship 
owner is not to lose, the cost of her idle time has 
to be added to her freight charges. To over- 
come this disadvantage, it is necessary to have 
abundant means for moving cargo quickly to 
and from the wharves on the land side. 

The Public Belt Railroad. The municipally 
owned Public Belt Railroad, which has been in 
operation since 1908, meets this necessity. The 
Public Belt tracks make a complete circuit of 
the city, connecting all trunk lines, all wharves 
and landings, and all important industries. Be- 
fore the operation of this system, switching 
charges ranged from eight dollars to twenty- 
two dollars per car. Now, engines, owned by 
the Public Belt Commission, carry goods from 
railroad to railroad, from ship to railroad, from 
factory to ship or railroad, for the nominal sum 
of two dollars a car. This includes the hauling 
of the empty car before loading or after un- 
loading, for the Public Belt does not own the 
cars. Over 15,000 cars a month are handled by 
the Public Belt, and its business is constantly 
increasing. 

The route of the Public Belt is shown on the 
present-day map of the city. (Shown in back 
of Book.) 



Necessity for Co-operation Between Dock 
Board and Public Belt. The necessity will be 
understood when it is remembered that a ship 
a little over 300 feet long, will carry, iu round 
figures, about 6,000 tons of cargo, while one 500 
feet long will carry 15,000 tons. Six thousand 
tons of cargo are, on an average, 400 car loads, 
while 15,000 tons are 1,000 car loads. No wharf 
at a ship's berth can hold much over 150 car 
loads at one time. The need, then, of having 
cars conveniently placed and rapidly handled 
is absolute, if the ship is not to wait or be car- 
ried to another berth for part of her cargo. The 
expense of moving is several hundred dollars. 
Therefore, it will be a very great advantage 
when the ship can discharge and receive her 
cargo at one berth without any idle time. 

Necessity for Many Miles of Trackage to • 
One Mile of River Front. As a freight car is 
about forty feet long, the thousand cars needed . 
to carry a 15,000-ton cargo will occupy 40,000 
feet of railroad track, or seven and one-half 
miles. The Illinois Central Railroad, at Stuy- 
vesant Docks, has twenty miles of trackage for 
one mile of wharfage, and is finding it neces- 
sary to put in additional tracks. To enable the 
Dock Board to get the greatest use out of its 
wharves, it is not only necessary to have perfect 
co-operation with the Public Belt Railroad, but 
it is also necessary for that organization to 
greatly increase its trackage. 



SECTION 7. WATERWAYS. 

Water Route of Mississippi 
River System. One of the great- 
est advantages enjoyed by New 
Orleans is that the Mississippi 
River and its tributaries furnish 
more than 16,000 miles of navi- 
gable waterway, extending into 
twenty-two of the forty-eight 
states of the Union, included be- 
tween the Alleghanies on the 
east, the Rockies on the west, and 
Canada on the north. 




MAP SHOWING DRAINAGE SYSTEM Of MISSISSIPPI Kill I;. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



71 



These are: 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

Alabama 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

West Virginia 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Kansas 



"Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Northern Texas 



The new impetus given to water-borne com- 
merce by the improvement of waterways, by 
the construction of modern inland water craft, 
and by the provision of suitable terminals, will 
make New Orleans a port of deposit and dis- 
tribution for all the states in the Mississippi 
Valley. 

Volume of Mississippi Valley Trade. The 
commerce originating in these states is more 
than half the commerce of the Union. Notwith- 
standing their continual expansion, the rail- 
roads cannot always handle it entirely. The 
history of railroad transportation shows that 
the volume doubles about every ten years. It 
is a matter of absolute necessity that the. water- 
ways shall soon come into general use. Already 
the movement is on foot to build and operate 
economical barges and boats, so that freight 
can be handled to advantage and profit on these 
waterways. 

Barge Line. At present there are weekly 
trips between St. Louis and New Orleans. The 
permanence and success of this aid to the 
Valley's transportation problem depends upon 
the tonnage given the New Government River 
Line. 

River Traffic. The volume of river traffic is 
not realized, because so few people see it. One 
towboat, now on the Mississippi, can bring 
from Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in thirty days, 
twenty barges of coal of 1,000 tons each. This 
is equal to eighty trains of fifty cars each; 
nearly four miles of train. Such a large quan- 
tity of coal would not come as quickly by rail. 

Much sugar, cotton, rice aud general produce 
are brought by river boats now. There are at 
present within the State of Louisiana nearly 



5,000 miles of navigable streams and canals 
connected with the port of New Orleans. 

During 1918 the arrivals were: 

Steamboats 1,1 39 

Luggers and gasoline boats... 1,500 

Miscellaneous 502 

Total 3,231 

Steamboat Landing. Just below Canal 
Street is the steamboat landing, where river 
boats of every size and description may be seen 
unloading their cargoes of sugar, rice, cotton, 
molasses, and general produce. On their return 
trips, miscellaneous cargoes are carried to dif- 
ferent points at which the boats touch. 

Lake Trade. The trade on Lake Pontchar- 
train, while small in comparison with the rail- 
road or sea trade, is by no means insignificant, 
either in volume or in its effect upon the cost of 
many necessities. Small boats, schooners, lug- 
gers, gasoline boats, and barges bring lumber, 
shingles, staves, cordwood, lathes, rosin, char- 
coal, sand, gravel, and shells, besides numerous 
other products of the country around the Lakes. 
There are, altogether, about 4,000 arrivals 
during the year, and the number is steadily in- 
creasing. "When Lake Pontchartrain is con- 
nected with the Intercoastal Canal system, the 
volume and variety of the business will very 
greatly increase. The Lake trade finds its way 
into the commercial part of the city by Spanish 
Fort through Bayou St. John, which joins the 
Carondelet or Old Basin Canal, and by West 
End through the New Basin Canal. 

The Old Basin Canal. The Carondelet or 
Old Basin Canal was cut in colonial times (See 
Chapter II). It came under the control of the 
railroad companies and, as its efficiency was 
thereby greatly impaired, the state is suing for 
its control. The Old Basin enjoys a monopoly 
of the Lake oyster trade because of its nearness 
to the markets. 

The New Basin Canal. In 1831, the Now 
Orleans Canal and Banking Company was char- 
tered for the purpose of constructing a naviga- 
tion canal above Poydras Street from the city 
to Lake Pontchartrain. The work progressed 
rapidly, being completed at a much less cost 
than had been estimated. The Canal and Bank- 
ing Company was eventually separated. The 
canal, known as the New Basin Canal, was 
turned over to the state in 1838. The hank, 



72 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



however, has continued in business until the 
present day. The New Basin Canal is operated 
by a board and superintendent appointed by the 
Governor. This canal is in a prosperous condi- 
tion, doing about three times as much business 
as the old; the plan to deepen the New Basin 
to eleven feet will, if carried out, further in- 
crease this advantage. Along the bank of the 
canal, the board maintains a shell road, which 
has long been noted as one of the finest drive- 
ways in the country. 

Lake to the River Canals. Below New Or- 
leans, the Lake Borgne Canal extends from 
Lake Borgne to the Mississippi River. "While 
very useful, it has two disadvantages : it can be 
used only by small vessels and it is not under 
public control. 

Navigation Canal — Inner Harbor. The con- 
construction of a Navigation Canal and Inner 
Harbor, near the commercial center of the 
City, was rendered necessary by the demand for 
shipbuilding, industrial, and wharf and ware- 
house sites upon a fixed water level. This de- 
mand is being met by the Dock Board, and 
many millions are being expended upon the 
canal, its locks, bridges and appurtenances. 
Tbe largest steamships will be able to use the 
canal, which will connect the Mississippi River 
with Lake Pontchartrain. The Lake now has a 
fourteen and a half foot channel. The deepen- 



ing of this channel to 30 feet, which should re- 
sult from the building of the seawall, which the 
Orleans Levee Board is authorized by the Con- 
stitution to dig along the lakeshore, will ulti- 
mately enable the largest and deepest draft 
steamships to reach the Gulf of Mexico through 
the Lake, and result in the development of the 
Port upon the Lake front. The distance from 
the Gulf to the City via the Lake is about fifty 
miles shorter than by the River route. 

The Canal and Inner Harbor will provide 
sub-aqueous storage for coal from the Alabama 
fields, and enable the delivery of iron, steel 
and coal from the same fields to be made in the 
heart of the City over an all-water route. 

Intercoastal Canal. The Intercoastal Canal, 
now under construction by the United States 
Government, will furnish an inland waterway 
from the Rio Grande to Boston. It will elim- 
inate much of the loss from storms encountered 
by ships in the open gulf or sea. A plan has 
been approved for the Intercoastal Canal to 
join the Mississippi River at a point opposite 
New Orleans. The canals now leaving the Mis- 
sissippi near New Orleans will likely become 
parts of the system, as, wherever possible, lakes, 
streams, and existing canals are being utilized. 
This linking together of the waterways into one 
connected system will inevitably stimulate 
water-borne commerce. 



SECTION 8. PORT IMPROVEMENT. 



Port Improvement. Realizing the necessity 
for the rapid and economical handling of 
freight and of providing up-to-date facilities 
for the purpose, the Dock Board keeps con- 
stantly in touch with all commercial organiza- 
tions, shippers and others, who are called upon 
to make known their needs and offer sugges- 
tions. The result is a continuous development 
along modern lines of port growth and the cre- 
ation of a model port. 

Mechanical Devices. The Dock Board has 
begun extensive experiments to test and try 
out all kinds of machinery for the handling of 
various kinds of goods, so as to give quick 
service to ships, both loading and unloading. 



Warehouses. The Dock Board is having 
warehouses and sheds erected, where freight 
can be brought together for the ships or quickly 
transferred to the wharves to await distribu- 
tion. In other words, it will make New Orleans 
a "port of deposit" instead of a mere transfer 
station. The erection of the great cotton ware- 
house has been the first step in this direction. 
Heretofore, the world's surplus has been handled 
and kept, for the most part, at Liverpool, and 
any brought back to America required the pay- 
ment of double freight charges. (See Chapter 
VII., Section 1.) 

Facilities have been provided by the Dock 
Board for grain, coffee, sugar, rice, and any 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



73 



other uniform commodity that can be brought 
to New Orleans, and even general merchandise 
can be so cared for. 

Free Port. New Orleans, realizing the im- 
portance of her geographic position and also 
recognizing the benefits derived from a Free 
Port, has asked the Government to establish the 
Gulf Free Port or Zone at this point. 

Commodity Warehouses. Upon the river 
front and canal, three large Commodity Ware- 



houses are being built, one for the United 
States Government as a Quartermaster Supply 
Depot, the other two by the Dock Board for the 
storage of general commodities. In connection 
with the Navigation Canal and Inner Harbor 
these enormous storage warehouses will play 
an important part in the Latin-American trade. 
Coal Handling Plant. It is proposed to erect 
on the Mississippi a Coal Handling Plant to be 
operated by the Dock Board. 



SECTION 9. RAILROAD COMMUNICATION. 



Western Communication. The Southern Pa- 
cific Railroad, the Texas Pacific Railroad, the 
Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company, 
and the New Orleans, Texas, and Mexico Rail- 
road Company now fur- 
nish the medium of traffic 
with the west side of the 
Mississippi River. These 
give two through routes 
to the Pacific coast, and 
all the states between, 
besides reaching all the 
cities west of the Missis- 
sippi River as far as St. 
Louis and Omaha. 

Eastern Communica- 
tion. On the east, the 
Louisville and Nashville, 
the New Orleans and 

North Eastern, the Illinois Central, the Yazoo 
and Mississippi Valley, and the New Orleans 
Great Northern, directly or indirectly, give rail- 
road connection with all the United States. The 
Illinois Central has a double track to Chicago 
and reaches, with connecting branch lines, Bir- 
mingham, Louisville, Indianapolis, Omaha, and 




FERRYING CARS ACROSS THE RIVER 



Sioux City. 

Note. During the World War the Govern- 
ment took over the management of nearly all 
railroads. 

Jefferson Internation- 
al Highway. The High- 
way was organized No- 
vember 16, 1915, in the 
Chamber of Commerce at 
New Orleans. It extends 
from Winnepeg to the 
Crescent City, a distance 
of 2,400 miles, passing 
through seven states of 
the Union, one province 
of Canada, and connects 
264 cities and towns. The 
road is 55% hard surface 
and serves the dual pur- 
pose of providing a great north and south 
highway and of honoring Thomas Jefferson for 
his part in the Louisiana Purchase. It ranks 
with the great Lincoln Highway in importance. 
Besides its value to automobile traffic, it was 
and will continue to be valuable to the United 
States as a military road and for mail service. 



SECTION 10. FOREIGN TRADE. 



One of the most important features of New 
Orleans is its foreign trade. As you approach 
the river any time you see the tall masts of 
schooners being towed up the river or turn- 
ing in to the docks, and as you approach 
the water-front you hoar the chugging of the 
donkey engines and the clinking of the winches 



as they hoist the great packages of cargo into 
or out of the holds of the great steam vessels. 
You can spend a most profitable afternoon 
walking along the docks observing the varied 
activity, for a great seaport is a most interest- 
ing place. The first thing you will see is, of 
course, great piles of cotton bales waiting to be 



74 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



sent to Europe or Asia; then there will he oats 
and wheat, and piles of our familiar kinds of 
luraher, pine, cypress, etc., awaiting export. 
But more interesting probably will be the 
mahogany logs, sisal fiber, coffee, bananas, 
cocoanuts, copra, etc., which have been unload- 
ed from vessels coming from many parts of the 
world. You will wonder where they came from, 
you will examine the packages and perhaps 
discover just what strange island produced the 
vanilla beans; and if you chance to see some 
nitrates and make inquiry you will find that all 
natural nitrates outside of Germany come from 
Chile; and if you are curious about that very 
light but earthy looking substance, you will find 
it is copra or dried cocoanut meat being brought 
from Jamaica or Trinidad and going to the 
Southern cotton-seed mills to be made into oils 
and fats for cooking, soap-making, and innu- 
merable other purposes. 

As is natural, our greatest and most regular 
trade is with our nearest neighbors, Mexico, the 
West Indies and Central America, though some 
of the largest single items of trade are with 
more distant countries, as exports of cotton to 
European countries, imports of coffee from 
Brazil and of nitrate from Chile. Regular 
freight services (and in many instances pas- 
sengers are also carried) are maintained be- 
tween New Orleans and Tampico, Vera Cruz 
and Progreso, Mexico; Belize, British Hon- 
duras; all the principal ports of Central Amer- 
ica, including Colon, Canal Zone; Cuba, Jamai- 
ca, Porto Rico, French West Indies, Barbadoes, 
Trinidad ; Venezuela, Japan, Great Britain, the 
Scandinavian countries, Netherlands, France, 
Spain, and Italy. Most of these lines have been 
foreign, with ships under foreign registry 
mostly British, but an ever increasing number 
since the World War began are flying the 
American flag. 

Trade With Mexico. The chief imports 
from Mexico are crude oil from Tampico and 
Tuxpam and sisal or henequin from Progreso, 
Yucatan. Yucatan has practically a monopoly 
of the world production of sisal, its climate 
being peculiarly adapted to the growing of that 
fiber. Sisal is a necessity to the American 
farmer, as no substitute has yet been found with 
which to make binder twine; a cheap fiber is 
required of sufficient stiffness to be auto- 
matically cut without dulling the knife-blade. 
Other imports from Mexico are dyewoods, 



coffee, chicle to make chewing gum, hides, and 
various minerals. We send to Mexico all kinds 
of manufactured goods: machinery for her in- 
dustries, agricultural implements, clothing, 
cotton goods, canned goods, etc. 

Trade With Central America and the West 
Indies. Most of the steamship lines running 
from this port to Central America and some of 
the West Indies are owners of immense banana 
plantations. The plantations are not far in- 
land, and the steamship lines are primarily to 
bring their crops of bananas to New Orleans 
and to take back supplies needed on their own 
plantations, as well as supplies for the adja- 
cent country. The largest is the United Fruit 
Company. New Orleans is the leading banana 
port of the United States. Vast quantities of 
raw sugar are brought from Cuba and Porto 
Rico and refined in New Orleans. Dyewoods 
are brought from Haiti and the Dominican Re- 
public, and asphalt and cocoanuts from Trini- 
dad. Many other tropical products are brought 
to New Orleans from these countries, for distri- 
bution through the Mississippi Valley; for 
instance coffee, cacao, cocoanuts, copra, honey, 
wax, citrus fruits, pineapples, gums, fibers, as 
ramie and kapok, vanilla, and molasses, to be 
used as foods or to use in the great American 
industries. 

Exports. New Orleans is the second port of 
the United States, being outranked only by 
New York. The combined value of exports and 
imports for 1918-19 aggregated almost $300,- 
000,000. Practically every state in the Missis- 
sippi Valley sends some products through the 
port of New Orleans. Corn, wheat, and other 
grains come from the Central States. The 
Southern States, especially Louisiana, Missis- 
sippi, and Arkansas, send cotton and cotton 
seed products, oil cake and meal. Oklahoma 
and Texas supply some cotton, but the bulk 
of the crop from those states is shipped from 
Galveston. As a lumber port, New Orleans 
stands first among American cities. In the 
heart of the cypress region, it exports both 
lumber and manufactured articles. The South- 
ern yellow pine and naval stores obtained from 
it pass through New Orleans en route to points 
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. 
Nearly all the staves used in harvesting the 
wine crop of Europe are supplied by this port, 
while quantities of oak, walnut, and poplar, as 
logs or lumber, are distributed to all parts of 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



75 



tlio world. Linseed products from Minnesota; 
tobacco from Tennessee. Kentucky, Ohio, and 
Indiana; iron from Alabama; farm machinery 
from Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Wisconsin; 
boots, shoes, and miscellaneous products from 
the vast area connected with New Orleans by 
a network of waterways and railroads swell 
the export trade. 

Other Imports. From far-away India, Brit- 
ish ships bring burlaps, which is fourth in value 
on the list of imports, and a coarser kind of 
bagging made from the pieces of .iute unfit for 
burlaps. British liners carry salt, ferro-man- 
ganese, which is used in making Bessemer steel, 
and textiles from the world-famed looms of 
England, besides manufactured articles of 
every description. Fuller's earth, carried some- 
times as ballast, is brought in great quantities; 
it is used for bleaching- and cleaning cloth and 
for filtering oils. Most of it goes to the cotton- 
seed and linseed oil mills. One of the curious 
paradoxes of commerce is that the same British 
ship that brought 8,000 sacks of salt from 
Liverpool carried to Liverpool on her return 
voyage 5,000 sacks of salt from Louisiana 
mines. Notwithstanding the unlimited re- 
sources for food production within the 



United States, many articles for table use 
are brought from European ports. Unexcelled 
wines and liquors, the secret of whose manufac- 
ture is jealously guarded; cheese, unequaled by 
American makes, from France, Holland, and 
Switzerland; olive oil from southern France, 
Italy, and Spain; currants from Patras, Greece; 
lemons and even garlic all the way from Italy 
are unloaded upon New Orleans wharves. 
Diverse minerals, such as marble from Italy, 
magnesite from Austria, and ferro-manganese 
from Luxemburg, are imported. Every kind 
of manufactured article — fine china, porcelains, 
and toilet articles from France; plate glass and 
baskets from Belgium — is brought to New Or- 
leans to be distributed over many states. 

Triangular South American Trade. The 
value of coffee far exceeds that of any other im- 
port, being over thirty-two and a half million 
dollars. Three British lines bring nine-tenths 
of the coffee imported to New Orleans from 
Brazil. Kio de Janeiro and Santos are the ports 
of origin. These same ships take cargoes from 
New Orleans to European ports, and there get 
cargoes for Argentina and Brazil, making a tri- 
angular run always in the same direction. It 
is a fact that great quantities of American goods 




IMPORT i OITI'.K. 



76 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



find their way to South America through Euro- 
pean ports. Though several efforts have been 
made to establish direct lines from New Orleans 
to Brazil and Argentina, it has so far been 
found that the existing European lines, es- 
pecially the British, were too strongly estab- 
lished in that trade for the new, weak lines to 
break into it. Lately a triangular service be- 
tween Japan, Brazil, and New Orleans has been 
opened. 

Trade With Europe. A very great trade is 
carried on with Europe in staples, partly by 
liners, but mostly by tramp steamers. The 
tramp steamers, (and since the World War, 
sailing vessels have also been used) carrying 
usually full cargoes of some one commodity, go 
from port to port searching for cargoes. For 
instance, a small ship may bring in copra to be 
crushed in our oil mills, load up with cotton for 
Liverpool; go to Cardiff and take on Welsh 
coal to unload at the British coaling station in 
Jamaica. Lumber is shipped to Europe mostly 
as deck loads, or to fill out a cargo. 



Trade With The Orient. The trade with 
the Orient is developing wonderfully. Two 
Japanese lines and one British line are now run- 
ning to Japan. The great spinning industry of 
Japan developed during the war must have 
American cotton; she also imports iron and 
steel and machinery. The Orient produces any 
number of materials of which we have need; 
hides and skins, hair, soya beans (to be crushed 
for oil), tea, rape seed, wood oil, camphor, 
cassia, egg products, etc. 

Panama Canal. The Panama Canal opens 
the door of the Pacific Ocean to the port of New 
Orleans, as the nearest port of the United 
States to the Atlantic end of the canal. The 
opportunity is boundless in its possibilities. 
The trade of the west coast of South America, 
of much of the west coast of North America, a 
great part of the trade of Australia, Japan, and 
China, the Philippine Islands, and Farther 
India, as well as the East Indian Islands, will 
pass through New Orleans. 



SECTION 11. THE UNITED STATES CUSTOM SERVICE. 



The Custom House. The United States Gov- 
ernment collects annually about three hundred 
million dollars in tariff, or what are called Cus- 
toms Duties. To look after this business, as 
well as to attend to all the business in connec- 
tion with boats and shipping, it built the Cus- 
tom House in Canal Street, between Decatur 
and North Peters Streets. It is a noble granite 
structure o f graceful 
and dignified propor- 
tions. The large hall in 
the center of the build- 
ing, commonly called 
the Marble Hall, is one 
of the handsomest 
rooms in the country. 
The walls are of brick, 
faced with granite, and 
in parts, on the inside, 
with marble. They are 
very massive and are 
fastened together with 
heavy bars of iron built 




into the brickwork. The building has settled, 
and will probably continue to do so, but the 
construction is so fine and it is so well balanced 
that no damage has been done by what settling 
has taken place. It was finished about 1880. 
General Beauregard at one time had charge of 
the work as an officer of the Engineer Corps of 
the Army. 

Duties of Collector. 
The Custom House is in 
charge of the Collector 
of Customs, who has 
control not only of the 
port of New Orleans, 
but of all the State of 
Louisiana and western 
Mississippi. All ships 
that arrive are required 
to report at the Custom 
House to the Collector 
and file a list of what 
they have on board, 
called a " manifest. ' ' 



CUSTOM HOUSE. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



77 



This is called "entering." A ship is not al- 
lowed to leave port without filing a mani- 
fest of what she carries away, and getting 
permission from the Collector. This is called 
' ' clearing. ' ' 

Duties of Surveyor and His Officers. The 
Collector has under him an officer called the 
Surveyor, whose duty it is to look after ships 
and everything pertaining to the government 
revenue outside the Custom House. The Sur- 
veyor has under him Inspectors, who do the 
actual work of executing the law and the orders 
of the Collector. Every ship that comes in is 
in charge of an Inspector, who makes a return 
of everything she brings in. On that return, 
the duties are settled and paid. No man can 
get his own freight until he gets a "permit" 
from the Collector after having deposited cash 



for the duties. No ship is allowed to discharge 
freight, unless there is an Inspector present. 
The Customs Inspectors also search the bag- 
gage of passengers coming from foreign coun- 
tries. In fact, nothing can come lawfully from 
any country without passing under the super- 
vision of a Customs Inspector. There are forty- 
five of these officers at New Orleans, and about 
twelve million dollars of duties are collected 
on their returns. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Shipping; Section 2, Seaport and 
Riverport; Section 3, Harbor; Section 4, Publicly 
Owned Wharves; Section 5, Handling Cargo; Sec- 
tion 6, Public Belt; Section 7, Waterways; Section 
8, Port Improvement; Section 9, Railroad Communi- 
cation; Section 10, Foreign Trade; Section 11, The 
United States Customs Service. 

REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, 
Rightor; Reports of the Board of Commissioners of 
the Port of New Orleans. 







k A 






liimiC ■-'■* 




*»■- 



PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE HARBOR. 



CHAPTER VII 



Industries. 



SECTION 1. COTTON. 



The Cotton Plant. Cotton belongs to the 
mallow family, which includes not only cotton, 
but also okra, hollyhocks, and a number of 
common weeds. There are three main kinds of 
cotton grown in the United States, namely, 
short staple, long staple, and Sea Island cotton. 
The four leading cotton parishes of Louisiana 
are Tensas, Point Coupee, St. Landry, and 
Morehouse. Cotton, however, can be grown in 
every parish. By scientific methods of planting 
and cultivation, the farmer now makes his cot- 
ton crop in eight or nine months, where for- 
merly it took a year. 

Every nation depends largely upon 
the southern part of the United States 
for cotton. It is the crop which has a 
staple value in the markets of the world, 
its bill of lading being universally nego- 
tiable. The powerful influence it exerts 
on trade, its absorption both as product 
and manufacture, place it high in the 
scale of commercial economics. 

The New Orleans Cotton Market. 
New Orleans has always been the largest 
market for the sale of cotton. Up to a 
recent date, it ranked first in point of re- 
ceipts in the United States. The increase 
in the Texas crop and the drastic regula- 
tions of the Texas Railroad Commission 
have forced the bulk of the crop of that 
State through the port of Galveston, 
making that place the largest cotton re- 
ceiver. The source of the cotton supply 
of New Orleans is principally from Ar- 
kansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. A 
small part of the products of Texas, 
Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama finds 
a market through this port. An immense 
cotton warehouse has been erected, and 
New Orleans has great prospects of be- 
coming the center for the storage of 
cotton, subject to the wants of the spin- 
ners in America and abroad. 



The New Orleans Cotton Exchange. The 

Cotton Exchange, whose membership and visit- 
ing membership embrace between 500 and 600, 
ranks as one of the three great contract markets 
in the world. Through this medium, a large 
percentage of the cotton crop of the United 
States, marketed through various ports, is con- 
trolled by the merchants of the Crescent City. 
The business of the membership of the New 
Orleans Cotton Exchange embraces the filling 
of orders from every state in the Cotton Belt 
and the cotton manufacturing centers of the 
North, East, and West, as well as all the great 




NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



79 



markets and the manufacturing centers of 
Europe. The daily transactions on the floor of 
the local Exchange reflect, and, in a great meas- 
ure, govern, the world's sentiment in reference 
to the values of the great southern staple. 

The Advantage of Cotton Futures. The 
system of dealing in "cotton futures" gives 
manufacturers of small means equal advan- 
tages with those possessing large capital in 
selling their product far into the future. With- 
out the aid of the "futures" system, it is very 
evident that manufacturers having small or 
moderate capital would be at a very serious dis- 
advantage. 

Manufacture of Cotton. The first successful 
venture in cotton manufacturing was made in 
1864, by N. L. Lane. The Lane Mills have 
gradually increased in size. They still retain 
the name of their founder, although they have 
passed into other hands. These mills are now 
equipped with modern machinery, and the most 
improved methods are used in the manufacture 
of colored cotton goods. 

The Maginnis Mill No. 1 was established in 
1881, and a second, called No. 2, in 1888. These 
mills, which were closed in 1910, and reopened 
July, 1914, make sheeting, drill, duck, and are 
specializing in cement bags. 

Although there have been no large cotton 
mills established in New Orleans in the last 
twenty years, there are a number of knitting 
mills for the manufacture 
of hosiery, jerseys, knitted 
underwear, twine, carpet 
yarns, and reeler yarns. 

Cotton Seed Oil— Cake. 
The cotton seed oil indus- 
try depends upon the 
state's annual production 
of cotton. The use of cot- 
ton seed is entering into 
the economic life of the 
people, and the by-pro- 
ducts manufactured from 
cotton seed have added 
millions to the productive 
value of the cotton lands 
of Louisiana. 

The Cotton Warehouse. 
Realizing the necessity of 
modern terminal and stor- 
age facilities, the Board 
of Port Commissioners 



has had the huge cotton warehouse erected, 
covering an area of 62 acres. The annual capa- 
city of the warehouse is at present 2,000,000 
bales, which will ultimately be increased to 
4,000,000 bales. Fire insurance companies have 
agreed to a rate of fifteen cents per $100 on all 
cotton stored in these reinforced concrete struc- 
tures. Some of the most up-to-date features of 
the new warehouse are three high density 
presses, electric trucks, internal concrete run- 
ways, and "bale-puller"; this last relieves the 
strain of the pile from the bale wanted, and 
then withdraws the bale without disturbing the 
pile. The warehouse will issue a receipt for a 
bale of cotton, which is recognized and accepted 
for full value anywhere in the world. Thus, 
New Orleans may become a point of deposit 
for the world's surplus cotton, as well as the 
point of export for a large part of the cotton 
crop of the United States. 

In connection with this enterprise, another 
great piece of engineering work was the re- 
clamation of nearly 2,000 feet from the Missis- 
sippi Eiver in front of the cotton warehouse. 
This work was difficult and costly; but the 
acreage reclaimed and the advantage of hav- 
ing the warehouse along the deep water chan- 
nel of the river will more than offset the work 
and expense. 




80 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



NOTE. — The Mexican boll-weevil came into Texas 
from Mexico about 1892, and has since spread throughout 
most of the cotton-growing sections of the adjoining 
states. The most important step in fighting the boll- 
weevil is to hasten the maturity of the cotton plant, so 
that the bolls formed early in the summer are well grown 
by the time weevils become very numerous, which is about 
the middle of July or the first of August. The boll-weevil 
does not do much damage to well-grown bolls, while there 
is an abundance of squares in which eggs have not already 
been laid. 

Safety lies in diversified farming and intensive cotton 



culture. The history of the Whitney cotton gin is familiar 
to every boy and girl. However, few are aware that to 
Louisiana belongs the introduction of the first cotton gin 
in 1742 by M. Dubreuil. 

TOPICS: The Cotton Plant; New Orleans Cotton Re- 
ceipts; Financing the Cotton Crop; Manufactures. 

REFERENCES: Duggar's Agriculture for Southern 
Schools; Leigh's Book on Cotton; United States 
Census Reports. 



SECTION 2. CORN. 



Corn belongs to the grass family. Some of 
the plants to which it is related are true grasses, 
as sugar cane and rice. Corn differs from most 
of its relatives, in having both a tassel and an 
ear, and in having these located on different 
parts of the plant. 

Races of Corn. There are only a few races 
of corn, the most important being pop, sweet, 
dent (or common), and flint. In each race, there 
are many varieties. Corn is planted either in 
elevated ridges or beds, in depressions or water 
furrows, or in level ground, according to the 
soil and the farmer's judgment. 

Corn Crop of Louisiana. Louisiana is fast 
taking a leading place among the leading corn 
states. The yield is increasing steadily, due to 
fertilization, deep plowing, adequate cultiva- 
tion, and systematic rotation of crops. Splen- 
did work is being accomplished by the Boys' 
Corn Clubs, an important branch of the Farm 
Demonstration Bureau, which is under the 
direction of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Louisiana corn is harvested at a 
time of continued sunshine, and, if dried in a 
way to preclude deterioration, is preferred by 
the markets at home and abroad. 

According to the last report of the Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture, cotton, without counting 
its seed, still leads, with corn a close second. 

TOPICS: Corn Family; Louisiana as a Corn State. 

REFERENCES: Report of the Commissioner of Agricul- 
ture for February, 1918. 




CORN CROP ON RECLAIMED LAND. 



SECTION 3. SUGAR. 



Sugar Cane. Sugar cane belongs to the grass 
family. Under the tube-like lower portions of 
each leaf are buds, one at each joint. These 



serve instead of seed to multiply the plant. 
Sugar cane first grew in the countries warmer 
than the Southern States, but has greatly 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



81 



changed its habit of growth as it has been car- 
ried northward. In the tropics, it continues to 
grow fifteen months or more, before being cut. 

Sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana 
from San Domingo in 1751, by the Jesuit 
Fathers. The cane grew well, but all attempts 
tn manufacture sugar failed, until 1791, when 
Don Antonio Mendez succeeded in extracting 
sugar from cane. Pour years later, Etienne de 
Boi'e made such a large crop of sugar that 
man; were induced to go into the industry. 

Preparation and Cultivation. In Louisiana, 
a field to be planted in cane the next year, is 
planted the pi'eceding year in corn, with cow 
peas sown thickly among the corn. The entire 
growth of cow peas is turned under by the use 
of immense plows. This enriches the land by 
furnishing vegetable matter and nitrogen. 
Sugar cane is then grown on that field for two 
or three years. A good average yield in Louisi- 
ana is twenty to thirty tons of cane per acre. 
The tops cannot live through the winter, but 
the stubble and roots remain alive and furnish 
a supply for a second and, sometimes, for a 
third crop. Planting, therefore, is necessary 
only every second or third year. The sugar 
belt embraces twenty-four parishes, St. Mary 
leading. 

Sugar Making. As 
the cane is cut, it is 
loaded by mechanical 
loaders into wagons of 
about two tons ca- 
pacity. These wagons 
are driven to the hoist- 
in;;' derricks, which load 

the eai n the ears. At 

the sugar house, these 
discharge the cane into 
a | iatented carrier. The 
cane is passed through 
large mills which crush 
it. and thus separate the 
juice from the woody 
matter or bagasse. 
Prom here, the juice 
runs through the sul- 
phur ( a n k s . w li e re 

sulphur dioxide is ab- 

sorbed. The bagasse is 
carried to the furnaces. 
Here, it is mixed with 
a little crude oil and 



furnishes the source of fuel for operating the 
mill. After the juice is sulphured, it is pumped 
to other tanks, where lime in solution is added 
and the juice brought to a boil. The clear part 
is drawn off to settling tanks. The precipitate, 
or solid substance which has been deposited, is 
sent through the filter press, separating the 
juice from what is called the filter presscake or 
solid matter. (A filter press is a cast iron 
frame with heavy sheets of cloth, through which 
the juice is pumped.) The juice remains in 
the settling tank for half an hour; then all the 
clear juice is drawn off and mixed with juice 
from the filter press. The whole is passed 
through the evaporators, operated under 
vacuum, to make sugar house syrup. 

This syrup is then boiled in the pan to make 
"massecuite," a heavy mixture of sugar crys- 
tals and molasses. This is run through the 
centrifugals, which separate the sugar and 
molasses. Generally, the sugar is washed with 
water before it is taken out of the centrifugals. 
The molasses and wash-waters are reboiled to 
make second sugar. The molasses in this 
process is used for stock-feed and is also sold 
to distilleries. 

Refining Process. Sugar is mixed with 
water to make a thick magma, when it is run 




A CAVE CROP ON' RECLAIMED LAND. 



82 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



into the centrifugals. It is again washed with 
water to remove the outer coating of the 
crystals. The remaining part of the sugar 
is dissolved separately, reclarified, and put 
through the bone black filter. The liquor is 
again evaporated into syrup, and finally into 
"niassecuite." When it comes out of the cen- 
trifugals, it is put through the driers and 
granulators. 

Louisiana Sugar Crop. Sugar made in 
Louisiana from the crop of cane harvested in 
1918-1919, according to an enumeration just 
completed by the Bureau of Crop Estimates, 
amounted to 561,800,000 pounds 



Including 



and 



the 



syrup, 
where produced 



value on 
about 



is 



sugar, molasses, 
the plantations 
$60,000,000. 

The Chalmette Sugar Refinery. This re- 
finery is a mighty tribute to the greatness of 
the sugar industry of Louisiana. It represents 
the very best in steel and concrete construction 
engineering. The steel docks permit three large 
ships to discharge their cargoes simultaneously. 
The shipping facilities permit the loading and 
unloading of fifty cars at the same time. The 
filtering plant has a capacity of 6,000,000 gal- 



lons a day; the huge boiler plant generates 
11,000 horse-power, and is fitted with gravity 
coal bins of 7,000 tons capacity and with me- 
chanical stokers. The cooperage is one of the 
largest in the South. The machinery is elec- 
trically driven. 

The refinery has an annual capacity of 
600,000 tons. More than one-third is Louisi- 
ana sugar, the remainder being imported from 
Cuba, Java, and the Hawaiian Islands. 

The Sugar Experiment Station. The Sugar 
Experiment Station was moved about thirty 
years ago from Kenner to its present location 
in Audubon Park. The station experiments in 
the field, laboratory, and sugar house, publish- 
ing its results in bulletins. It has aided in every 
development of the sugar industry. 

The Sugar Exchange of New Orleans is the 
place where buyers and sellers meet daily for 
the purpose of trade in sugar, syrup, and 
molasses. 



TOPICS: Introduction into Louisiana; Preparation and 
Cultivation; Sugar-Making; Refining Process; Lou- 
isiana Sugar Crop. 

REFERENCES: United States Census Reports; Crop Re- 
ports of 1918-1919. 




uial-\ii<:tte sugab kefineky. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



83 



SECTION 4. RICE. 



The History of Rice. The history of Asia 
from the beginning records rice as a staple 
human food product. When we refer to the 
intrinsic value of rice as a human edible, we 
have the emphasis of centuries of use and the 
development of the Asiatic peoples, especially 
the Japanese, for proof. The first rice planted 
in the United States was in Virginia, in 1(147. 
The experiment was a failure, this state being 
too far north. In 
1694, a vessel from 
Madagascar, owing 
to a storm, entered 
Charleston Harbor. 
The captain gave a 
planter some rough 
rice, from which a 
successful crop was 
grown and the seed 
from this was dis- 
tributed. 

Rice in Lou- 
isiana. Rice was 
first raised in Lou- 
isiana in an at- 
tempt to offset the 
ill effects experi- 
enced by the wan- 
ton destruction of 

the Carolina industry. Owing to the responsive 
soil, rice soon became a recognized staple in 
Louisiana. 

When rail lines were built through the 
prairie parishes of Southwest Louisiana, the 
Western farmers (about 1SS4) made their ad- 
vent into that section. Primitive methods of 
sowing, binding, and threshing soon gave way 




to modern mechanical appliances. The most 
important era of the rice industry was in 
1896 — the year in which the irrigation canal 
was introduced. In commencing operations, a 
canal company first makes a thorough topo- 
graphical survey, which makes possible the con- 
struction of the main canal and laterals in such 
a manner as to allow the water to go on at the 
higher levels and inundate by gravitation the 

lower levels. All 
the rice in. Louisi- 
ana is irrigated by 
pumping, the ex- 
ception being the 
alluvial sections 
where the water is 
syphoned from the 
river. 

Rice Culture. The 
ground is well 
broken with riding 
plows and pulver- 
ized with large 
harrows. As a 
rule, the seed is 
planted by drills, 
although in the al- 
luvial lands a great 
many growers 
eliug to the old method of broadcasting. Unless 
the ground is very wet, water is turned on im- 
mediately after seeding. It is turned off again 
until the grain has attained a growth of four 
or five inches, when it is reflooded to about the 
same depth until a week before harvesting. 
This commences about the latter part of July, 
according to locality, and extends to about the 



IRRIGATION PUMPING 1>LANT IN WEST LOUISIANA. 







"if 



PREPARATION OF SOIL FOR RICE PLANTING IN WEST LOl IM \N \ 



84 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



fifteenth of November. After being threshed, 
the rice is either sold in the- field to the agent 
of a mill, or consigned to one of the central rice- 
milling points. About one-third of the milling 
crop is disposed of through the factor on the 
floor of the New Orleans Board of Trade, which 
organization controls, to a great extent, the 
prices of rice for the entire country. Most of 
the rice disposed of on the Board of Trade is 
sold to local mills, the balance being shipped to 
the South Atlantic markets. Rice finds its 
chief use as a staple article of food. Ten per 
cent, of the Louisiana crop was used in the man- 
ufacture of beer. 

Description of a New Orleans Rice Mill. 
The rice is received at the warehouse in sacks 
weighing 180 pounds each. These sacks are 
unloaded from the cars and elevated into bins 
by belt-conveying machinery. From the bins, 
the rice is run through the separators, which 
remove all foreign substances. It is then fed 
into the center of the hulling stones, where it is 
revolved at the rate of 250 revolutions a minute, 
and, through centrifugal action, the rice is 



forced through the perforated ends of the upper 
and lower stones. This process removes the 
hull from the grain. It is then passed through 
the fanning machines, which remove the hull 
by suction. A separator then turns back the 
unhulled grains to another set of stones, for 
about twenty-five per cent, of the rice is still 
unhulled. The huller is a cylinder within a 
metal case, which removes the oily cuticle that 
covers the grain. This oily cuticle is known 
as the rice bran. From here, the rice goes to 
the brushes, which are upright cylinders cov- 
ered with leather. These polish the rice against 
a wire screen, leaving behind a white powder 
known as rice polish. The polishing drum, 
through friction, gives the highly polished 
appearance which is found in nearly all finished 
rice. The rice is then put into the clean rice 
separators, where the broken grains are sepa- 
rated from the whole grains and the various 
commercial grades packed. 

TOPICS: The History of Rice; Rice in Louisiana; Rice 
Culture; A Description of a New Orleans Rice Mill. 

REFERENCES: Bureau of Plant Industry of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



SECTION 5. TOBACCO. 



The crop report for the year 1918 shows that 
300 acres of tobacco, producing 126,000 pounds, 
valued at $82,000, were planted in the parish 
of St. James. The same report also shows that 
a few acres were planted in the parish of Evan- 
geline, and that Ouachita parish raised some 
tobacco for home use. 

The Perique Tobacco. The Perique tobacco 
was first grown many years before the Civil 
War by an Acadian whose name the tobacco 
now bears. This industry has been kept up con- 
tinuously by the lineal descendants of Perique, 
and is cultivated in the same manner as any 
other sun tobacco. It is sown in the early part 
of January, replanted in March or April, the 
crop being harvested in the latter part of June, 
or the beginning of July. After harvesting, the 
tobacco is hung in sheds to dry. It is then 
stripped and placed in presses until the follow- 
ing March or April, when it is ready for the 
market. Sometimes it is not sold until three or 
four years old, as it improves with age. Perique 
finds its chief use as a seasoner for mixtures, it 



being an exceedingly strong tobacco. It is 
shipped to all American tobacco markets, to 
Canada, and to England. 

Manufacture of Tobacco in New Orleans. 

The first factory was established in 1857. New 
Orleans has always handled a large part of the 
cigarette business of the South. At present, 
there are two immense plants operating here. 
New Orleans is a meeting point of the Havana 
and the domestic tobacco from the tobacco- 
growing states of Kentucky and Ohio. The 
United States Weather Bureau records show 
that the climate of New Orleans is most favor- 
able to the working of tobacco; its humidity is 
almost equable throughout the year, the changes 
being gradual. New Orleans, because of its 
very successful factories, is widely known as a 
cigar center. 

TOPICS: Annual Production; Perique Tobacco; Manu- 
factured Tobacco. 

REFERENCES: Agricultural Report for 1917-1918; 
Pamphlets of the Association of Commerce. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



85 



SECTION 6. LUMBER. 



Louisiana's Lumber. Louisiana is the second 
largest lumber-producing state in the Union 
(Washington, first), the annual value of the 
product being $100,000,000. Including by-pro- 
ducts, the annual value exceeds $110,000,000. 
The state has standing timber to the amount of 
120 billion feet, valued at $600,000,000. It also 
has over 5,500,000 acres in cut-over lands, eighty 
per cent, of which is now suited for agriculture. 
Yellow pine occurs in thirty-one parishes. In 
the middle and southern sections are the im- 
mense forests of long leaf pine which furnish a 
large industry for the adjoining states. The 
short leaf pine is found in the northern section, 
in the region of the oak uplands. Almost every 
known variety of oak, hickory, gum, pecan, 
cotton-wood, ash, magnolia, maple, and the 
largest variety of the elm are found. The state 
has about 154 species of trees within its borders. 

Cypress. In Egypt, long before Abraham 
climbed the desert mountains that separate 
Chaldea from Canaan, 
cypress was the wood of 
royalty. Gopher wood, 
from which Noah builded 
the Ark, was no other than 
cypress. In polytheistic 
Greece, in pagan Rome, 
and in Egypt, the wood 
of the cypress tree was 
treated with religious ven- 
eration, and from it were 
carved the hideous faces 
of their heathen gods. In 
point of quality and value, 
the unparalleled forests of 
cypress surpass all others, 
and Louisiana possesses 
75 per cent, of this forest 
product of the United 
States. Cypress is adapt- 
able to many uses in build- 
ing, inside and outside, 
having wonderful powers 
of duration. In all alluvial 
deposits of Louisiana, per- 
fect cypress logs, hundreds 
of feet below the present 
level of the Gulf of Mexi- 




CYPKESS SWAMP 



co, have been uncovered. In 1810, pipes for the 
water system were made of hewn cypress trees. 
Foi'ces of the present Sewerage and Water 
Board have,- in excavating, found these pipes 
in a splendid state of preservation. 

Millions of dollars have been invested in the 
timber resources. The movement for the utiliza- 
tion of waste accumulating in the manufacture 
of lumber is destined to create an immense and 
important industry. Unregulated methods of 
lumbering and the turpentine industry are the 
chief causes of this waste, which can be used in 
the manufacture of charcoal and of paper. 

Lumber Industry in New Orleans. A large 
proportion of the lumber bought and sold in the 
New Orleans market is used for building, by fac- 
tories for making boxes, furniture, coffins, doors, 
sashes, blinds, and similar products. Many 
of these factory products are shipped to 
the surrounding territory and to foreign coun- 
tries. The lumber that is shipped to New Or- 
leans to be treated with 
creosote and other pre- 
servatives is widely dis- 
tributed. The importance 
of New Orleans as a lum- 
ber market consists large- 
ly in its exporting to a 
great number of foreign 
countries. Xew Orleans 
is situated close to the 
1 irincipal lumber-produc- 
ing sections. It is well 
supplied with railroad 
lines and waterways, and 
draws shipments for ex- 
port from a wide territory. 
In the export of yel- 
low pine, New Orleans 
lends, with Mobile, Pen- 
sacola, and Gulfport rank- 
ing in order named. In the 
export of hardwoods, such 
as oak, gum, cotton-wood, 
ash, poplar, and other 
woods of that character, 
it far exceeds these three 
ports combined. If the 
shipment of logs, staves, 



86 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



headings, railroad ties, and miscellaneous forms 
of lumber partly manufactured for special uses, 
be added to the export of hard woods, New Or- 
leans far exceeds any other port in the country; 
such export is almost as great as that of all the 
Atlantic ports combined. Tts export of staves 
vai'ies yearly, from a Utile under to a little over 
half in number of the amount exported from the 
entire country. Great yards are maintained, in 
which are stored millions of staves awaiting 
shipment. A large proportion of these are sent 
abroad in full ship loads; many of these, as 
parts of wine casks, have the pleasure of re- 
turning home. 

The financing of the lumber industry is 
largely centered in New Orleans. The official 
figures for the year 1918- '19 show the city 
handled for export $12,000,000 in forest pro- 
ducts. 

Law Protecting Louisiana Forests. A law 
has been passed for the prevention of forest 



fires, making it a misdemeanor punishable by 
fine and imprisonment to negligently and wil- 
fully set on fire any forest, brush, or grass land. 
Railroad companies, operating through forest 
lands, are required to keep their right of way 
clear of all combustible materials. 

At present, there is very little reforestation 
in Louisiana. Acting under authority of Act 
261 of 1910, the Department of Conservation en- 
tered into an agreement with the owners of de- 
nuded forest lands for the purpose of encourag- 
ing its reforestation. The Department agreed 
on behalf of the state to protect and supervise 
28,000 acres of denuded lands, set aside for the 
growth of trees, for a period of forty years. 
This land is situated in the Parishes of La 
Salle. Winn, and Caldwell. 

TOPICS: Louisiana Lumber; Capital Invested; Laws Pro- 
tecting Forests; Reforestation. 

REFERENCES: Annual Reports ot Lumbermen's Asso- 
ciation; Lumbermen's Trade Journals; Report of 
1917-18 of Department of Conservation. 



SECTION 7. MINERALS. 



I. SULPHUR. 



Nature has endowed Louisiana with many 
wonderful natural resources. Inexhaustible de- 
posits of sulphur, salt, oil, natural gas, many 
fine kaolins, and clays can be found within its 
borders. Throughout the tertiary strata, there 
occur in varying quantities marble, sandstone, 
limestone, iron, gypsum, Fuller's earth, green 
sand, and other less important minerals. Of 
these, sulphur, salt, oil, and natural gas are the 
only ones that have been commercially de- 
veloped. 

Sulphur. The magnificent sulphur deposits 
in Calcasieu Parish were discovered in 1858, in 
one of the unsuccessful attempts to tap the oil 
deposits of Southwest Louisiana. The sulphur, 
covering an area of sixty-two acres, is supposed 
to be from a sunken volcano, several hundred 
feet underground, lying immediately below a 
quicksand. Vain attempts were made from 
time to time to utilize this wonderful gift of 
Nature. 

Attempted Developments. A French syndi- 
cate leased this property from 1883 until 1885. 
They imported their machinery and castings 
from France and expended over a million and 



a half dollars on their project, before they 
abandoned what at last proved to be a fruitless 
undertaking. In 1889, a New York company 
tried to develop the mines, but failed. In 1895, 
Herman Frasch, a scientist, found a practical 
solution to the problem, which not only de- 
veloped the mines of Louisiana, but revolution- 
ized the sulphur industry of the world. 

The Frasch System. The Frasch system 
melts the sulphur from the sulphur-bearing rock 
by the applicatiou of hot water and steam, and 
the pumping by compressed air of the con- 
sequent liquid sulphur to the surface, where it 
is run into wooden tanks and allowed to congeal. 
As each layer of sulphur congeals, the operation 
is repeated, until the piles have attained the 
height of sixty or seventy feet and become solid 
mountains of sulphur, which are broken up by 
means of explosives. The famous sulphur mines 
of Sicily, owned by the Italian government, are 
operated on the shaft and tunnel principle, the 
consequent loss of life being very great. By the 
Frasch system, a workman never goes beneath 
the surface, every operation being carried on 
above the ground. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



87 



Annual Production. The annual production 
of the mines is approximately 400,000 tons 
of sulphur, almost chemically pure, analyz- 
ing 99.8%, and valued at about $30 a ton. About 
50,000 tons arc exported; the remainder of the 
output is used in the United States, 70% in the 
manufacture of paper. (See Note.) Sulphur is 
also used in the manufacture of explosives and 
for agricultural purposes. It is a strong aid in 
the making of white sugar, without the use of 
bone black. Sulphuric acid is one of the most 
important acids known to the chemist. The 
actual waste of this great natural resource is 
estimated not to exceed one per cent, of the 
production. 

Shipment of Sulphur. Most of the sulphur 
is shipped by the company's steamers from 
Port Sabine, Texas, to North Atlantic seaports 



for distribution throughout the United States 
and Canada. The National Sulphur Company, 
located in New York, is the largest sulphur re- 
finery in the world. 

NOTE. — At present, June. 1919, the mines are tem- 
porarily closed on account of the large supply of sulphur 
on hand. 

NOTE. — In the manufacture of paper, sulphur is hurned 
into gas and passed through a tank containing milk of 
lime, and then, finely chopped wood, usually spruce, is 
mixed with the resultant fluid, which induces the process 
of decomposition in the wood, and converts it into what 
is known as wood pulp. This industry is now confined 
chiefly to New York, Massachusetts, Maine, Pennsylvania, 
and Wisconsin. 

TOPICS: The Sulphur Deposits of Louisiana; Attempted 
Developments; The Prasch System; Annual Pro- 
duction; Shipment of Sulphur. 

REFERENCES: Report of Department of Conservation, 
1916-18; Report of United States Geological Survey. 




TON'S OP SULPHUR READY FOR SHIPMENT. 



II. SALT. 



Louisiana has the greatest rock salt deposits 
on the Western Hemisphere. Geologists have 
never been able to solve the mystery of these 
deposits. Some claim them to be of volcanic 
origin; some, to the action of the wind and 



waves; while others say they are due to the im- 
prisonment of an arm of the sea, through allu- 
vial deposits, and the consequent evaporation 
of the salt water, so enclosed. Louisiana's rock 
salt mines have been confined up to the present 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



time to Avery's Island, Weeks' Island, Jeffer- 
son's Island, and Belle Isle, the last named 
known as the rendezvoux of Jean Lafitte. 

Louisiana Salt Industry. The production of 
salt is Louisiana's oldest industry, the first 
white settlers having reported meeting Indian 
salt traders. Evaporated salt made from the 
brine springs was quite an important industry 
from the time of the first settlement until after 
the Civil War. It was then carried on inter- 
mittently, until 1894, when it died out alto- 
gether, owing to the more economic methods of 
making salt. 

Rock Salt Deposits. The inexhaustible rock 
salt deposits of Louisiana were discovered in 
May, 1862. Salt \vas very scarce at that time, 
and Judge John March Avery of Avery's 
Island determined to bore for it. A negro 
workman, after going down sixteen feet, told 
Judge Avery that he had struck a sunken log 
and could proceed no farther. Investigation 
proved that it was not a log, but the great rock 
salt deposits that have made Louisiana famous. 
Avery's Island was the only active salt mine 
in the state until 1903, when mining operations 
were commenced at Week's Island deposit. 
The mine at Belle Isle was worked for some 
time, but the shaft was destroyed by water. 

Mining of Salt. Rock salt is mined in very 
much the same manner as all the baser min- 
erals. The first operation is the drilling of the 
holes for the insertion of the dynamic charges, 
rock salt having the resisting 
■ power of 5,000 pounds to the 
square inch. This is accom- 
plished by eleven-foot drills. 
The salt is cut out in tunnel 
form, arched columns being 
left to prevent a collapse. 
These tunnels are 750 to 1,000 
feet long and 80 to 100 feet 
wide, and of about the same 
height. The blasting is some- 
times done at night to prevent 
accident, and to allow the at- 
mosphere to clear for the next 
day's work. The salt is load- 
ed on narrow-gauge mule 
trains, which carry it to the 
foot of the shaft. There, it 
passes through a great forty- 
horse-power electric motor- 
driven crusher in the Myles' 



mine, but in the Avery's works the crushing is 
done at the top. After being crushed, the salt 
is fed by gravitation into the cage and carried 
to the mill, where it is fed automatically into 
screens and separated into the various com- 
mercial grades. If it is shipped in bulk, it is 
deposited by gravity into the cars, and if in 
small quantities, automatically fed into sacks. 

Annual Output. The annual output is about 
200,000 tons, valued at $400,000. Of this an- 
nual production, only 500 tons a month were 
actually consumed in New Orleans, this amount 
being sold wholesale to jobbers. The coarser 
quality is used in all forms of refrigerating, 
curing of hides, preserving of meat and fish, 
and the making of ice and ice cream. Salt is 
also used in glazing sewer pipes, as the lustrous 
enameling can be obtained in no other way. 

The shipment of both mines originates on 
the Southern Pacific road, and, naturally, the 
volume of the business, with the exception of 
the Western shipments, comes through New Or- 
leans. Some of the salt goes to the West Indies, 
Central, and South America, Liverpool and 
small shipments have been made to Copenhagen. 
The remainder is distributed over the United 
States and Canada. New York, Philadelphia, 
and Boston shipments are routed from New 
Orleans by water. 

TOPICS: Louisiana's Salt Industry; The Mining of Salt; 
The Annual Output; The Shipment. 

REFERENCES: Report of Department of Conservation 
of 1916-1918; Agricultural Report of T917. 




MINING SALT UNDER GROUND. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



89 



III. OIL. 



This valuable substance, like sulphur and 
salt, occurs in proximity with the older rocks 
of Louisiana. Geologically, the oil is believed 
to be obtained from quaternary sands. Louisi- 
ana now stands sixth among the great oil- 
produeing states of the Union. Oil was pros- 
pected for before the Civil War, but the Gulf 
Coast country did not attract the attention of 
the great oil operators until 1001, when the 
Spindle Top gusher in the Beaumont district 
caused a great rush to that section. 

Annual Production. The oil output for the 
year 1916 in Louisiana was 14,795,220 barrels. 
The Caddo field, which was one of the most im- 



portant oil-producing sections of Louisiana, 
declined in 1914, and was overtopped by the 
great wells discovered in the Red River section. 
This section produced, in 1914, nearly four 
million barrels of oil, valued at over three and 
a half million dollars. The new fields at Anse 
la Butte and Edgerly, in the coastal sections, 
helped swell Louisiana's 191fi output and put it 
in the fifth place among the oil-producing states 
of the Union, being exceeded by, in the order 
named, Oklahoma, California, Texas and Illi- 
nois. The 1917 increase in the Kansas fields 
enabled that state to surpass Louisiana and 
placed her fifth in the output. 




IENNWGS OIL FIELD. 



IV. GAS. 



The ,n'as fields of Caddo and De Soto Par 
ishes, according' to the last Government Survey 
report, are among the greatest gas fields in the 
United States. The production from the eighty- 
four gas wells in the Caddo and eight in the 
De Soto fields is enormous. 

It is believed that, through strict measures 
of conservation, these fields will continue to pro- 
duce unlimited quantities for a great period of 
years. The Caddo field supplies thirty-eight 
suiTounding cities and towns in Louisiana, 



Arkansas, and Texas, with gas for fuel, light- 
ing, and manufacturing purposes. 

A movement is now under way to pipe gas 
into New Orleans from the new gas field uncov- 
ered in Terrebonne Parish, in 1917, which has 
one of 1he largest natural gas wells in the 
country. 

TOPICS: History of Oil and Gas; Annual Production. 

REFERENCES: United States Government Survey Re- 
port of 1916-1917; Department of Conservation 
Report of 1916-1918. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Manufactures. 



Early History of This Industry. In the early 
French and Spanish days, New Orleans de- 
pended upon the mother countries for manu- 
factured goods. After Louisiana became a part 
of the United States, there was little change in 
the conditions prevailing in manufacturing, be- 
cause the city lacked skilled operators, and 
commerce was more profitable. The few fac- 
tories in New Orleans owed their origin to the 
absolute necessities, and were for such repair 
work as could not be done anywhere else. The 
foundry, designed for tbe repair of machinery, 
led for many years in this industry, and from 
this business grew the manufacture of machin- 
ery, agricultural implements, boilers, etc. The 
development of the sugar industry proved a 
great stimulus to such manufactures. The iron 
industry of Alabama of recent years has also 
been an advantage. Gas was used as an illumi- 
nant here in advance of most of the Western 
cities; its manufacture dated back to 1833. 

The census of 1850 showed the weakness of 
New Orleans in manufactures, and in the fol- 
lowing decade there was a still further decline. 
After the close of the Civil War, manufacturing 
began to receive more attention. The disap- 
pearance of slavery, the enemy of free labor, 
had a beneficial effect, and there was a large 
supply of labor, though somewhat unskilled. 
The year 1885 marked a period of prosperity in 
this industry. The census of 1900 showed that 
New Orleans was the largest manufacturer of 
cotton seed oil in the world; the largest cleaner 
and preparer of rice and molasses, and of vari- 
ous canned goods. It held a high position in the 
refining of sugar, the manufacturing of clothing, 
cigars, and a number of other commodities. 

New Orleans in 1918. New Orleans now 
ranks thirty-fifth as a manufacturing city. Gov- 
ernment statistics show that, in the last five 
years, New Orleans has increased in manufac- 
tures more than any other city in the South. 
The center of population is now drifting south- 
ward, and the Panama Canal will increase this 
movement one hundredfold. At present, there 



are 848 factories in this city, 80,000 wage-earn- 
ers, and the annual production in monetary 
value is $78,000,000. This is greater than the 
combined manufactures of Atlanta and Bir- 
mingham, or Dallas and Houston. If we include 
in this list the American Sugar Eefinery and the 
various factories of St. Bernard and Jefferson 
Parishes, which may properly be done, since the 
freight movement is from New Orleans, and 
most of the factories have their general offices 
established in the city, the value of the goods 
manufactured in the territory would easily total 
$150,000,000. This is greater than Atlanta, 
Birmingham, and Memphis combined. Within 
the precise boundaries of New Orleans, the lead- 
ing commodity in value is burlap and cotton 
bags, rice (polished) ranking second. The real 
strength of New Orleans as a manufacturing 
city is in the diversity of goods made. The 
number of factories is less to-day than twenty 
years ago, because larger factories have been 
installed, and many smaller ones have been 
amalgamated. The amount of money invested, 
the number of employees, and the value of the 
finished products are far greater. 

New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center. 
This city is excellently located as a manufac- 
turing center, and is the distributing point for 
eleven Southern States. Statistics show that 62 
per cent, of the raw materials for manufactur- 
ing is found in the Mississippi Valley, and New 
Orleans is the gateway of the Valley. Many 
raw materials are shipped to and through New 
Orleans from Cuba, Central America, and 
Mexico. 

Cotton, woolen goods, and tobacco products 
can be made to the best advantage in New Or- 
leans, because of the equability of the humidity. 
The water, which is now pumped out by the 
modern water plant of the city, is excellent for 
dyeing purposes, and for that reason colored 
woolen and cotton goods may easily be made 
here. For woolen goods, the raw material can 
be brought from Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 
and Australia, or from the Western South 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



91 



American countries by moans of the Panama 
Canal. The manufacture of pants and ready- 
made clothing already constitutes a large in- 
dustry. 

Raw Materials Now Used in New Orleans. 

Tlie principal raw materials now used in New 
Orleans by factories are hard and soft woods, 
cabinet woods, metals, wool, cotton, chemicals, 
hides and skins, sand and glass for building, 
brick and tile, fresh and salt shells. 

The hard and soft woods are found in the 
immediate vicinity of New Orleans. The lumber 
industry is one of the oldest, the reason being 
the ease with which lumber can be marketed. 
There are many finely equipped plants on the 
river front and on or near the two basins. One 
firm is the largest exporter of lumber in the 
world. The approximate figures for 1913- '14 of 
the lumber industry in New Orleans were about 
32,000,000 feet of cypress, 3,500,000 to 5,000,000 
feet of pine, and 15,000,000 feet of mahogany. 
The amount paid in sala- 
ries and wages in the 
wood-working indus- 
tries, furniture excluded, 
was $250,000. The capi- 
tal invested, furniture 
factories excluded, was 
$4,582,000. Door, sash, 
and blind manufactures 
amounted to $(550,000, and 
the box and box shooks 
to about $750,000. One 

plant makes a specialty of the "Standard Fold- 
Up Box," which saves time, labor, and money, 
and for these reasons it has been adopted by 
many large factories throughout the country. 

New Orleans is well supplied with cooper- 
ages of large capacities. These plants have 
modern machinery for making barrels, half- 
barrels, and kegs of all descriptions, princi- 
pally for oil, molasses, lard, liquor, sugar, pro- 
duce, and fish. 

Mahogany, Ebony, and Rosewood. These 
woods are imported from Central America, and 
in 191 3- '14, one-third of the entire amount used 
in the United States, amounting to about 
$1,000,000, passed through New Orleans. The 
largest mahogany plant in the United States is 
located here, giving employment to several hun- 
dred men. New Orleans, because of her age, is 
recognized as a center of antique furniture, and 
several plants are turning out copies of the old 




o'l'IS MAHOGANY PLANT 



styles in solid mahogany, rosewood, and walnut 
furniture of Hie highest grade. There are 
thirty plants making case goods, chairs of 
medium grade, brass and iron beds, mattresses 
of felt and hair, springs, etc. 

Copper and Brass Works. The copper and 
brass works manufacture turpentine stills, an 
apparatus for the preparation of the South 's 
naval stores for market, alcohol and vinegar 
stills, steam jackets and candy kettles. There 
are manufactories of tanks for all purposes, 
towers, stacks; in fact, all kinds of sheet metal 
works give employment to boiler-makers, pipe- 
fitters, and copper and iron workers. 

Manufacture of Boots and Shoes. The man- 
ufacturers of boots and shoes obtain their raw 
material from the leather tanneries north of the 
Ohio River. As early as 1850, New Orleans 
manufactured nearly all the shoes used in the 
city and surrounding country. These shoes 
were then custom-made, but for many years 

modern machinery has 
been used. 

Manufacture of Ice. 
Ice was introduced into 
New Orleans in 1826, and 
was regarded as a lux 
ury. It came from 
Maine in sailing vessels, 
and, as a large part of 
the cargo was lost in the 
long voyage, the remain- 
der commanded a high 
price. The supply was uncertain and the city 
was frequently without ice in the hottest 
months of summer. Gayarre says, "The first 
cargo of ice was dumped into the Mississippi 
River by the order of Mayor Macarty, who, 
backed by public opinion, declared that iced 
drinks would make consumptives of the peo- 
ple." The importation continued until 1868, 
when the manufactories of artificial ice drove 
out the New England product. The process, at 
first, was very expensive, but since 1898 has 
been improved and simplified. At present, 
there are many splendid ice plants, and the 
manufactured product is so cheap that it is 
within the reach of the poorest families. 

Cotton Seed Oil Industry. The cotton seed 
oil industry owes its origin to New Orleans, be- 
cause the process of manufacturing oil from the 
seed was discovered here. It has always been 
the center of this industry, and many of the 



92 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



mills in the surrounding country manufacture 
crude oil and ship it to New Orleans to be re- 
fined. Outgrowths of this industry are the soap 
mills, fertilizer and acid factories. Large 
quantities of this oil are shipped to Southern 
Europe. It is also used in the manufacture of 
lard in the "Western packing houses. The mills 
manufacture cotton-seed cake and meal, which 
are excellent as a food for cattle. Thousands 
of tons are exported to Europe each year for 
feeding stock. These by-products enter into the 
manufacture of nearly all the commercial fer- 
tilizers now produced in the South. 

Manufacture of Beer. The manufacture of 
beer is one of the more recent industries, the 
first company being organized in 1882. Since 
December 1, 1918, the manufacture of beer has 
been prohibited by act of Congress. 

Canning Factories. Canning is the greatest 
utility industry of the age. Were it not for the 
canneries, our present great centers must need 
have been small cities — for the good reason that 
a great city could not be fed without the help 
of canned goods. It is estimated that 50 per 
cent, of all the fruits and vegetables in the 
United States would go to waste except for the 
canneries. It is possible to save the over-pro- 
duction of a good year for the famine that may 
come another, proving that the industry is a 
mighty economy and the largest conserver of 
foods ever discovered. The canneries in and 
near New Orleans buy many of their fish, vege- 
tables, and fruits, etc., in the New Orleans 
markets. New Orleans, as a distributing point 
for the canneries, sends canned goods to all 
parts of the United States, Canada, and Europe. 
Thousands of cans of dried shrimp are sent 
annually to China, where they are considered 
a great table delicacy. 

The Future of New Orleans. New Orleans, 
the second largest seaport in the country, is 
destined to become a great manufacturing 



center. The mighty Mississippi, on which ply 
many steamboats, the steamship lines, the barge 
lines through canals, and the eleven trunk lines 
that have their terminals here afford the manu- 
facturer every facility. (See page 70.) The 
Public Belt Line, owned and operated by the 
city, has over twenty-eight miles of trackage, 
crossing every railroad, and covering a greater 
portion of the water front, giving direct touch 
to the steamboats and the steamships. As a 
center of distribution, New Orleans cannot be 
excelled. Previous to the World War skilled 
labor was plentiful, and the Immigration Sta- 
tion received large numbers of Europeans. 
Many of these were efficient laborers, anxious 
to secure employment. The maintenance of a 
factory is not expensive, as coal and fuel oil 
can be obtained at moderate prices. Electricity 
for power made by the plants in New Orleans is 
often used, being more economical in some 
cases. Wood, if necessary, can be obtained 
from the yellow pine and cypress mills, from 
waste in the furniture factories, and also from 
cord wood obtained in the nearby yellow pine 
forests. The location of New Orleans gives a 
delightful equability of temperature and there 
are few days in winter when factory doors can- 
not be opened. 

The advancement of New Orleans in the 
last few years is due to the men who realize the 
possibilities of their city, and have succeeded 
in putting it in the front rank, where it right- 
fully belongs. To the future citizens of New 
Orleans will be given the task of keeping up 
this great work of civic advancement. 

TOPICS: Early History of Manufacture; New Orleans in 
1914; New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center; 
Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood; Manufacture of Fur- 
niture; Copper and Brass Works; Boots and Shoes; 
Ice; Cotton Seed Oil Industry; Canning Factories; 
The Future of New Orleans. 

REFERENCES: Archives of City Hall and Cabildo; 
Pamphlets of the Association of Commerce. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Foodstuffs. 



SECTION 1. TRUCK FARMING. 



Development of the Truck Farm in Louisi- 
ana. Because of the semi-tropical climate of 
the state and the varied altitudes, ranging from 
the high hills of northern Louisiana, the foot- 
hills of the Ozark Mountains, to the alluvial soil 
of the lowlands along the network of prairies 
and bayous, Louisiana is enabled to produce a 
greater variety of fruit and vegetables than any 
other state in the Union. Fifty years ago, there 
was little truck raised around New Orleans and 
most of it was consumed locally, because the 
crude methods of packing and shipping did not 
permit transportation to distant cities. The 
first shipment of truck from New Orleans to 
the North was about 1866, being sent by boat 
to Memphis and St. Louis. When the railroads 
and express companies furnished adequate 
facilities for forwarding shipments to distant 
markets, truck farms sprang up like mush- 
rooms. Though the methods of handling and 
packing were poor, the farmers made a great 
deal of money, and New Orleans soon became 
the center of an intensive agriculture. There 
were no refrigerator cars, ice fac- 
tories, or box factories. About 
thirty-five years ago, shippers be- 
gan using refrigerator cars, and 
box factories were built to supply 
tlie containers for these products. 
Up to that time, many gardeners 
used second-hand sugar barrels, 
cutting holes in them for ventila- 
tion. This was unsatisfactory, as 
the vegetables often reached their 
destination in an unsalable con- 
dition. About twenty-five years 
ago, shippers began to use ice on 
vegetables packed in barrels, and 
this is still practiced. This busi- 
ness has increased to such an ex- 
tent that there are now several ice 
companies and cooperages that 
supply ice and barrels to the ship- 



pers. Methods of barreling and packing are 
so improved that vegetables sent great dis- 
tances reach their destination in perfect con- 
dition. 

Change from Plantation System to Truck 
Farming. For many years, vast plantations 
were devoted to the cultivation of cotton, sugar, 
and rice, to the exclusion of other products. 
These plantations were expensive to maintain, 
and often an overflow would leave a rich man 
bankrupt. Of late years, however, conditions 
have changed, and many of these large planta- 
tions have been cut up into truck farms; this 
has so increased the trucking industry, that to- 
day it is valued at millions of dollars annually, 
and is growing in importance each year. The 
result is greater prosperity to many. 

Principal Trucking Sections. The leading 
truck producing parishes of Louisiana are 
Plaquemines, St. Bernard, Orleans and Jeffer- 
son. The importance of these sections is due 
to the favorable winter climate and the excep- 
tional transportation facilities available. Quick 




PItODUCTS Of A TRUCK FARM ON RECLAIMED LAND. 



94 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



and direct transportation to big markets is the 
first requisite to profitable sale and distribution 
of fresh vegetables. Tangipahoa Parish, with 
Hammond as its chief shipping point, has also 
developed a profitable trucking business, pro- 
ducing a number of vegetables, including pota- 
toes, beans, etc., but known principally for its 
great crops of strawberries. Onions, potatoes 
and garlic are the* chief crops of the Lafourche 
trucking district, these commodities moving out 
of the towns of this section in car load lots. The 
territory immediately surrounding New Or- 
leans, in addition to shipping in car lots, also 
supplies the City of New Orleans. The princi- 
pal winter truck crops are lettuce, cabbage, 
carrots, shallots, kohlrabi, etc. Cucumbers are 
planted in hot-beds in the open and are ma- 
tured extra early and contribute their share to 
the Northern movement throughout the winter 
months. Oats, rye, and barley make very 
profitable crops, while, owing to the extreme 
fertility of the soil, many kinds of grasses, valu- 
able as cattle feed, may be harvested at a great 



profit. The cities and towns are co-operating 
with the country districts in a widespread 
movement for the improvement of farm lands, 
and the introduction of modern methods of 
farming. 

School Gardening. The school garden, as 
well as the home garden, can direct attention 
to the advantages of the cultivation of the soil; 
for gardening is applied nature study. Econo- 
mists teach that a greater production of food- 
stuffs is imperative. Gardens near to or withiu 
the city are a possible means of obtaining this 
result. If the public schools are to adapt them- 
selves to the needs of the children, an occupa- 
tion based on human welfare should be a sub- 
ject of instruction. The tilling of the soil is a 
fundamental necessity. In 1914, The Nature 
Study Club of the Normal School decided to 
try to promote interest in gardening by con- 
ducting a school garden contest. A highly 
creditable exhibit was made by several schools. 
This so encouraged the Club that it now carries 
on the work in a broader wa5 r . 



SECTION 2. FRUITS. 



Different kinds of soil produce different 
kinds of fruit. Louisiana, having such a varied 
soil, naturally admits of the cultivation of a 
great variety of fruit. There are some fruits, 
however, which grow in all sections of the state. 
Among these are the strawberry, blackberry, 
dewberry, sand pear, and fig. The last men- 
tioned, being so perishable, must be canned be- 
fore it is shipped. On account of this, few per- 
sons outside of the fig-growing section are 
familiar with the delicious flavor of the fresh 
fruit. Many varieties of plum are raised, and 
the Japanese persimmon bears well. Grapes 
succeed best in the uplands. Bananas may be 
grown on Louisiana soil, but are not cultivated 
to any extent. New Orleans does a thriving 
business in importing bananas from the tropics 
and sending them to all parts of the Union. 

The apple represents the greatest undevel- 
oped industry in the United States. A cold 
storage and ice refrigerating plant has been 
established in New Orleans with the view of 



making this port the greatest distributing 
center for the shipment of apples to South 
and Central America and through the Panama 
Canal. 

The Strawberry Industry. The strawberry 
farms in Tangipahoa Parish have a world-wide 
fame. The annual shipment of this berry 
amounts to over a million dollars, from a dis- 
trict which, thirty years ago, was an inde- 
finable forest. 

History of the Citrus Fruits. Centuries ago, 
there grew in the wilds of southeastern Asia and 
the Malay Archipelago, a ragged shrub, which 
produced a small berry full of seeds and bitter- 
ness. After many generations of patient culti- 
vation and innumerable experiments, there have 
been evolved from this humble beginning the 
monarchs of the fruit kingdom, the orange, the 
grape-fruit, and their satellites. China is the 
original home of the orange. 

The Citrus Fruits in Louisiana. The rich, 
alluvial lands of Southern Louisiana are the 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



95 



most favorable for the growth of the citrus 
fruits, which are the orange, the mandarin, the 
grape-fruit, the lemon, and the kumquat. It is 
impossible to ascertain in what year these fruits 
were introduced into Louisiana, but it is gener- 
ally accepted that oranges were first brought to 
New Orleans by the Jesuit Fathers, in 1727. 
Later, seedling oranges became plentiful in the 
southern part of the State. 



numerous commercial orange groves located in 
the district below New Orleans cover from 
5,000 to 7,000 acres and afford a livelihood for 
a large number of people. 

Life of the Citrus Tree. The citrus trees 
live to a great age. Trunks of large trees which 
have been lying for ballast in the holds of ves- 
sels have, when planted and properly tended, 
taken root and renewed their lives. 




ORANGE GliOVE. 



First Louisiana Orange Grove. The first 
Louisiana orange grove, of which there is any 
record, was planted by Florentine Buras in 
1860, and traces of this place still remain. 
About 1867, an orange grove of 125,000 seed- 
ling trees was planted fifty miles below New 
Orleans, and for some years was operated on a 
large scale, although modern horticultural 
methods were unknown. The grove is at pres- 
ent being cultivated in a small way. The 



Medicinal Virtues. The orange has many 
medicinal virtues, and the Creole mothers have 
always recognized orange-flower water as a 
remedy for fevers. In recent operations in the 
Brooklyn Navy Hospital, the Essence of 
Oranges was used as an anaesthetic in conjunc- 
tion with ether. This was so satisfactory that 
physicians predict its adoption for both Navy 
and Army, as it is much safer and less costly 
than the use of ether alone. 



SECTION 3. FISH. 



Fisheries. The fresh-water fish resources 
of the state are the spoon-hill cat, buffalo fish, 
and catfish, which are usually brought into New 
Orleans by express, packed iu barrels with ice. 
The salt water fish such as sheephead, sea trout, 



pompano, Spanish mackerel, red fish, etc., are 
found along the Gulf Coast from the Pearl to 
the Sabine River, and are brought to New 
Orleans by schooners and luggers. New Or- 
leans also buys salt water fish from Mississippi 



96 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



and Florida. All fish are bought by wholesale 
dealers, who sell to the markets. Some firms 
handle both salt and fresh water fish, while 
others only the former. The fresh water fisher- 
ies are valued at $2,000,000 annually. River 
shrimp are considered a delicacy. 

Salt water shrimp are usually brought to 
New Orleans in the same manner as salt water 
fish, but some of the shrimp fishermen are now 
using power boats. Most of these shipments 
are well iced, unless the weather is such as to 



make this unnecessary. The annual shrimp 
catch is valued at not less than half a million 
dollars. Seventy-five per cent, of the product 
is canned in the canneries in New Orleans 
and along the Gulf Coast. There are several 
colonies of Chinese in Barataria Bay, whose 
chief occupation is the drying of shrimp. The 
largest platform is "Manila Milage," the 
shrimpers, however, being a mixed popula- 
tion, representing almost every country of 
the globe. 



SECTION 4. OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



Oyster Resources. The oyster industry of 
Louisiana, at present, is dejjendent on 60,000 
acres of natural reefs on which oysters are 
found growing freely without any cultivation; 
and on about 20,000 acres of leased bottoms, on 
which special methods are used by the lease- 
holder in order to promote the growth of 
oysters. 

Method of Oyster Cultivation. The method 
of oyster cultivation is to provide a surface to 
which young oysters or spats may attach them- 



selves. If such a surface is established in the 
neighborhood of a natural reef, the spats from 
the latter will become attached to the new 
location and grow there. Otherwise, seed 
oysters must be placed where the new bed or 
reef is to be formed, so that in the spawning 
season a supply of spats will be provided for the 
stocking of the new bed. Oyster shells and 
other hard substances, called "cultch," are 
the materials used in making a new oyster 
bed. 



W$ 





LOADING OYSTERS ON A TRANSPORT. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



97 



Value of the Oyster Industry. The oyster 
industry is valued at about $5,000,000. New 
Orleans receives annually about 250,000 barrels, 
worth about $560,000. Oysters are brought 
generally in sacks by lugger and other craft. 
Small shipments, however, of opened oysters 
in containers, are also received. Oysters are 
bought principally by wholesale dealers, who 
sell to the local markets and ship to other 
points. 

Small shops sometimes buy from the oyster- 
men of St. Bernard Parish. Counter oysters 



come from the Bayou Cook district in Plaque- 
mines Parish, and cooking oysters from the 
Timbalier field in Lafourche Parish. 

It is difficult to say which is the best oyster 
ground. Some sections are better at one season 
and others at another, everything depending on 
the condition of the water, especially the de- 
gree of salinity. The Timbalier territory 
promises to be one of the leading sections in 
a few years. Fine oysters come from Bayou 
Chaland, but the supply is limited, as they do 
not multiply rapidly on these beds. 



SECTION 5. GAME-BIRDS. 



Louisiana is the winter home of about 75 
per cent, of the migratory wild waterfowl of 
the United States and Canada and its duck 
grounds are among the most famous in the 
country. About fifteen species of ducks are 
present in more or less abundance during the 
mid-winter. Only two species nest in the state, 
the summer mallard and the beautiful wood 
duck. The principal species are the mallard 
(better known locally as the "French Duck"); 
pintail, gadwall or grey duck, blue- and green- 
winged teals, spoonbill, canvasback, redhead, 
ring-necked or "black duck," the scaups or 
"dos-gris"; six species of wild geese, including 
the Canada, blue, snow, white-fronted, and 
Hutchin's geese are regular winter visitors. 



Other game birds include the coot or "poule 
d'eau", the gallinules, snipe, woodcock and 
several species of rail. The upland game birds 
include the wild turkey, Bob White (quail or 
partridge) and the mourning dove. 

Up to 1918, New Orleans was noted for the 
game birds sold in its markets. During the 
season the dealers in the French and other 
markets received more than 200,000 ducks, 
geese, snipe, coots, and rails, the value of 
which exceeded $100,000. Now the sale of all 
migratory game birds is prohibited by a Fed- 
eral law acting in conjunction with a treaty 
with Canada. 

Note. — See bird exhibit at Louisiana State 
Museum. 



SECTION 6. GAME-ANIMALS. 



The state's principal game animals are the 
Louisiana white-tail deer which are found in 
our cypress swamps and other heavily wooded 
sections; the Louisiana black bear still inhabits 
the canebrakes in the southwestern portion of 
the state, and in a number of the river parishes 
from Pointe Coupee to the Arkansas line. Five 
species of squirrel are hunted each winter by 
an eager army of sportsmen, and cougars and 



wild cats still abound in some of the dense 
woodlands along the large rivers. 

The sale of deer meat is prohibited by our 
laws, but squirrels are allowed to be sold dur- 
ing the open season, as are the two species of 
hares or rabbits that are found in almost every 
part of the state; southern cotton-tail and the 
marsh hare. 

Department of Conservation. Realizing the 
value of the natural resources of the state, the 



y» 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Legislature of 1912 established a political body 
called the Conservation Commission to patrol, 
protect, and upbuild all of these resources. In 
1916, it was changed to the Department of 
Conservation. This department has its office 
in the New Orleans Court Building, and, owing 
to the diversity of the resources under its con- 
trol, has varied duties and powers. It has an 
armed patrol on the boundary line between 
Louisiana and Mississippi, and throughout the 



state, to prevent violations of any of the con- 
servation laws. Its officers, inspectors, and 
agents have the power to search or examine any 
cold storage warehouse, boat, store, convey- 
ance, or basket when they have cause to believe 
that the law is being violated. 

This department issues reports and bulle- 
tins dealing with its activities for the purpose 
of educating the people of the state as to the 
value of these resources. 



SECTION 7. FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. 



The State of Louisiana is particularly rich principal fur-bearers of Louisiana, from which 



in fur-bearing animals, and the trapping in- 
dustry has reached such proportions as to 
make it a resource of large revenue and 
means of livelihood to a considerable per- 
centage of the population of the state. The 



are taken about five million pelts a year, are 
otter, mink, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, skunk, 
fox, wolf, and wild cat. In 1918 the trappers 
of the state earned over one million dollars by 
their work. 



SECTION 8. MEATS. 



In no state of the Union can live stock be 
more easily raised than in Louisiana, and many 
farmers are turning their attention to this in- 
dustry. Cattle are fattened, not only on ample 
pasturage and forage crops, but also on the 
cotton seed meal and hulls, rice bran, polish, and 
shorts from the rice mills, and cheap molasses 
from the sugar factories. Thousands of these 
cattle are shipped annually to the Northern and 
Western markets. Sheep-raising is carried on 
very profitably, — the cut-over pine lands afford- 
ing splendid ranges. Hogs are easily raised, 
and great interest is now being manifested in 
this kind of farming. 

The Abattoir Companies. There are two 
large slaughter-houses from which the people of 
New Orleans obtain their supply of meat. The 
live stock reaches the yards by rail when 
shipped from points in Louisiana, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Stock 
shipped from points on the west side of the 



Mississippi River is transferred by boat from 
the railroad terminals. 

How Purchased. All live stock is consigned 
to commission merchants, whose offices are 
located on the stockyard grounds, and who 
here sell direct to the butchers. The slaughter- 
ing is done by the abattoir companies, and the 
beef, veal, pork, and mutton are stored in re- 
frigerators until called for by the butchers. 

Inspection — Slaughtering. Before being 
slaughtered, all stock is examined by inspectors 
of the State Board of Health and of the United 
States Government. After being killed, they 
are dressed and are ready for the refrigerators. 
While they are being dressed, inspection is 
made by a representative of the City Board of 
Health and by a United States inspector. All 
carcasses found unfit for food are condemned 
and tanked for by-products — grease, tallow, and 
fertilizer, — which are manufactured by the 
company. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



99 



Refrigerators. The refrigerators are of the 
direct expansion system and are kept at a tem- 
perature from 30° to 35° Fahrenheit. The meat, 
as a rule, remains in the cooler from three to 
twenty days, according to the size and quality. 

Means of Delivery. The meat is delivered 
by means of wagons and auto trucks (owned by 
the slaughter-house company) between the 
hours of 12 M and 6 A. M. 

Western Packing House. Four large 
branches of Western packing companies are 
located in New Orleans, and do an immense 
wholesale business with markets, hotels, and 
steamships. The meat is sent here in refriger- 
ator cars, having had both ante-mortem and 
post-mortem inspection. It is inspected here 



by the city and the United States inspectors. 
Since the advent of the Morris interests, one 
of the greatest packing companies, which 
recognized Louisiana's possibilities as a live 
stock state, New Orleans has become the largest 
live stock market in the South. 

TOPICS: History of Trucking; Sources of the New Or- 
leans Supply; Co-operation of the City and the 
Country Districts. 

Louisiana Fruits; Strawberry Industry; History 
of the Citrus Fruits; Louisiana Orange Groves. 

Fisheries; Oyster Resources; Oyster Cultivation; 
Value of the Oyster Industry. 

Game-Birds and Animals; The Department of 
Conservation. 

The Live Stock of Louisiana; The Abattoir Com- 
panies; Western Packing Houses. 

REFERENCES: Agricultural Report of Department of 
Conservation of February, 1917-18; Newspaper Files. 



CHAPTER X. 



Professions — Trades. 



SECTION 1. THE BENCH AND BAR. 



Louisiana Laws. The Louisiana laws are 
all that is best of two great systems built up by 
the genius of man and tested by the experience 
of generations. Their fundamental principles 
approach as near the ideal as possible, for they 
are a texture composed of the best material 
from both the Common and the Roman Civil 
Laws. The Common Law of England inspires 
men with the knowledge that the power of gov- 
ernment must never overshadow the rights of 
man. The Civil Law of Rome, modified by the 
noblest thoughts of France and Spain, teaches 
that the lasting foundation for right and justice 
is to be found in the Golden Rule. The Civil 
Law will always receive the homage of scholars 
as a singular monument of wisdom. 

Early History. In the early days of Amer- 
ican domination, it was a question whether the 
laws of Louisiana were the laws of France or 
of Spain. Until 1769, when Don O'Reilly took 
possession of the colony, the laws were those 
of France, but he issued an edict proclaiming 
the laws of Spain. After the cession to the 
United States, the question arose as to whether 
this edict had repealed the laws of France. This 
point has never been settled, but as both systems 
took their origin from the -same source, the 
difference was not great. 

The Courts After the Cession. For a long 
while after the cession of Louisiana, it was an 
absolute necessity for the judges to understand 
both the French and the English language. In 
every court, there was a permanently employed 
interpreter, who translated the evidence, and, 
when necessary, the charge of the judge to the 
jury. The juries were composed of men, some 
of whom did not understand one word of 
French, while others were equally as ignorant 
of English. The litigants had to employ two 
lawyers, one speaking French and the other 
English. All writs were in both languages. 
Trial by jury was new to the Louisianians. 



While the American lawyers were speaking, the 
French jurymen were excused. The English- 
speaking members were, in turn, excused to 
enjoy their cigars and promenade in the ar- 
cades. After the argument, the jury met in 
their chamber to decide the case, and in most 
instances came to a satisfactory agreement. 

The Codes of 1808 and 1825". The original 
Code of 1808 was founded on the projet of the 
Code Napoleon. The Code of 1825 was revised 
in 1870, and is the present Louisiana Civil Code. 
Many of its articles are but translations of that 
Code, but there are amendments by different 
legislatures to many parts of it. An Act of 1828 
abolished the Roman, French, and Spanish 
laws that were not reprinted in the Code of 1825. 

Distinguished Jurists and Lawyers. The 
Bench and Bar have always stood deservedly 
high, but it would far exceed the limits of this 
chapter to attempt to record the individual 
achievements of all the jurists and lawyers who 
have left the impress of their worth on every 
page of the statutes and in every volume of the 
law reports. The sons of Louisiana thrill with 
pride when they hear the names of Francois X. 
Martin, John R. Grymes, Edward Livingston, 
Alfred Hennen, Christian Roselius, Pierre 
Soule, Etienne Mazureau, Judah P. Benjamin, 
Thomas J. Semmes, and Ernest B. Kruttschnitt. 

Francois X. Martin. Genius such as his re- 
quires neither brass nor stone to preserve his 
memory, for he built for himself an imperish- 
able monument in the jurisprudence of the state. 
He was the first Attorney-General and a judge 
of the Supreme Court for thirty-one years. The 
legal reputation of Louisiana was founded on 
the genius of Judge Martin, whose decisions 
were able and authoritative and read like the 
Code. Judge Martin left a large fortune. He 
became blind about eight years before his 
death. His will was contested on the ground 
that a blind man could not make a valid 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



101 



olographic will. The Supreme Court, however, 
upheld the will, which left his estate to his 
brother. 

John R. Grymes. John Randolph Grymes 
came to New Orleans not long before the Battle 
of New Orleans, in which he served as an aide 
to General Jackson. In the latter 's dispatches 
to "Washington, the name of John R. Grymes 
was mentioned in complimentary terms. Colonel 
Grymes was counsel for General Jackson in the 
United States Bank case. He was opposed to 
Daniel Webster in the Gaines case. He was also 
attorney for the Baratarian smugglers. On one 
occasion he went to their lair on the Gulf Coast 
to collect his fee. He remained for a week, and 
said his stay was most enjoyable. 

Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston 
arrived in New Orleans in 1804, just after his 
brother Robert had completed negotiations for 
the purchase of Louisiana. He was a profound 
jurist and an accomplished scholar. He repre- 
sented Louisiana in the Senate, was Secretary 
of State under General Jackson, and Minister 
to France. 

Alfred Hennen. Alfred Hennen was one of 
the most distinguished lawyers of the first part 
of the nineteenth century. He came to New Or- 
leans in 1808. Many members of the bar re- 
ceived their legal education in the office of 
Alfred Hennen, or attended his lectures at the 
Law School. 

Christian Roselius. Christian Roselius came 
to New Orleans in 1819 as 
a"redemptioner," that is, 
he hired his services for a 
stated period in payment 
for his transportation. 
Mr. Roselius was first a 
printer, but later studied 
law and" gradually rose to 
prominence, becoming At- 
torney-General Of the 
State. His legal reputa- 
tion was so great that he 
was offered a partnership 
by Daniel W T ebster, which 
he declined. It is said he 
possessed a voice of im- 
mense volume and great 
carrying power. 

Judah P. Benjamin. 
Judah P. Benjamin stud- 
ied law in New Orleans in 



a notary's office and was admitted to the bar in 
1832. At first, he met with small success and 
devoted himself to teaching, meanwhile, keep- 
ing up his legal studies by taking notes from 
the law reports. He finally established a good 
practice, and about 1847, his reputation became 
national. Louisiana histories tell of his bril- 
liant career before and during the Civil War. 
Northern writers speak of him as the "bi-ains 
of the Confederacy." After the war was over, 
Benjamin escaped to England through perils 
enough to make a romance. He read for the 
English bar and was admitted to practice in 
1866, supporting himself, meanwhile, by news- 
paper writing. It was only after his "Book on 
Sales" appeared that his reputation as a lawyer 
became established. When he retired in 1883, 
he was one of the greatest lawyers of England. 

Thomas J. Semmes. Thomas J. Semmes, a 
brother of Admiral Raphael Semmes, is a name 
familiar to every Orleanian. He was Attorney- 
General of Louisiana, and a Confederate State 
Senator. After the close of the war he resumed 
practice in New Orleans, and soon became the 
undisputed head of the Louisiana bar, ranking 
among the greatest lawyers of his own or of 
any other time. He was the very incarnation 
of legal learning, and intellectually a giant 
before whom few could stand. 

Ernest B. Kruttschnitt. Ernest Benjamin 
Kruttschnitt, a nephew of Judah P. Benjamin, 
was born in New Orleans, April 17, 1852, and 




NEW ORLEANS COURT BUILDING. 



102 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



died on his birthday, at fifty-four years of age. 
Mr. Kruttschnitt entered Washington and Lee 
College at fifteen years of age, and graduated 
with the highest honors in 1870. He accepted 
the chair of History and Literature at this 
university, and at the same time studied law. 
He returned to New Orleans in 1873 and began 
the practice of his profession. He was soon 
recognized as one of the leading lawyers. His 
brilliancy of mind and executive ability made 
him the leader of the Democratic party. His 
advice, legal and otherwise, was usually sought 
when matters of great moment were in ques- 
tion. His services for nineteen and a half years 
as a member and president of the School Board 
were most valuable. He was the moving spirit 
in placing the school work on a civil service 
basis and in establishing the Board as a busi- 
ness corporation. He was president of the Con- 
stitutional Convention of 1898, and guided that 
body through its strenuous sessions. His life is 



written in the laws of Louisiana and in its his- 
toric court records. 

The Bench and Bar of To-Day. The New 
Orleans Bench and Bar of to-day ranks 
among the foremost in this great land, and 
many of its brilliant members have compiled 
editions of the Codes and Digests. The Louisi- 
ana Law Association, incorporated in 1847, was 
reorganized in 1899, and its name changed to 
the Louisiana Bar Association. In the thirty- 
seven years of its existence, the American Bar 
Association has three times honored Louisiana 
with the presidency of that eminent body. A 
Louisiana lawyer now holds, through merit, the 
exalted office of Chief Justice of the United 
States. 

TOPICS: The Louisiana Laws; Early History; The Codes 
of 1808 and 1825; Distinguished Jurists and Law- 
yers; The Bench and Bar of To-Day. 

REFERENCES: The New Orleans Book of 1851; Foote's 
Bench and Bar of the South and Southwest; The 
American (after 1875, Appleton's) Annual Encyclo- 
pedia, 1861-1902. 



SECTION 2. HISTORY OF MEDICINE. 



The demand for men possessing or claiming 
to possess the art of healing or alleviating the 
diseases and suffering of frail humanity must 
have been coeval with the appearance of man 
on the surface of the earth. 

Indian Medicine Men. In America, long be- 
fore its discovery and colonization by the Euro- 
peans, the Indians had their medicine men. The 
Natchez, so familiar to every student of Lou- 
isiana history, were superior to the tribes that 
dwelt around them. Their physicians claimed 
a knowledge of more than three hundred 
medicinal plants native to Louisiana soil, and 
taught the colonists the use of them. The 
curative powers of these plants so impressed 
De La Chaise that he sent a collection of them 
to France, with a memoir written by La Page 
du Pratz. The Natchez understood the art of 
blood-letting, and the water cure was familiar 
to them. It is to these Indians that the Louisi- 
anians owe their acquaintance with the medi- 
cinal qualities of sassafras, sarsaparilla, and 
maiden hair. They discovered the balsam of 
the copal-tree to be an excellent remedy for 
fever, and astonished the French by their rapid 



cures of the most dreadful wounds produced by 
fire-arms. Their physicians ranked very high 
and were looked upon as inspired. The Natchez 
believed that, for every disease, the Great Spirit 
had provided a remedy in the shape of a plant, 
and, if supplicated in the proper manner, would 
point it out to the physician. They paid most 
liberal fees to the physician in case of success, 
but frequently put him to death if the patient 
died, believing that it was the doctor's fault if 
he did not find the remedy. 

Early History of Medicine. Very little has 
been written of the history of the practice of 
medicine in the early colonial days, as the docu- 
ments of public interest were written in foreign 
tongues and have been entombed in the archives 
of distant lands. Many physicians who came to 
this colony had the sole object of acquiring a 
fortune and then returning to their European 
homes. The gradual development of medicine 
in New Orleans is of peculiar interest. The first 
physicians, who came with Iberville, were army 
surgeons. In 1722, when New Orleans became 
the capital, civilian physicians from various 
parts of France became residents of the colony 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



103 



and were the first to establish the contract 
system of animal payment. When Don O'Reilly 
took possession, his troops were provided with 
Spanish army surgeons. Shortly afterwards, 
Spanish physicians came to the colony, and, like 
the Frenchmen, entered into contract practice, 
which was continued long after the purchase of 
Louisiana. This contract system has, within 
the last fifty years, been almost superseded by 
the "Mutual Benevolent Society" practice, 
which exists to this very day in New Orleans. 
"When their means permitted it, the first white 
residents of New Orleans sent their sons to 
Europe to acquire an education. A number of 
them studied medicine in the most celebrated 
schools and returned to practice in their native 
land. Later, some of the sons of Louisiana at- 
tended the schools of the East to acquire the 
English language, and while there obtained 
their medical education. After the purchase of 
Louisiana, many physicians from other states 
and from various European countries came to 
New Orleans, and entered permanently into the 
ranks of the profession, proving an honor to it. 

The First Medical College. In 1834, a Med- 
ical College was founded by Doctors Luzenberg, 
Mackie, Barton, Hunt, Cenas, and Harrison, 
these talented men having for a clinic the great 
Charity Hospital. They soon rendered it un- 
necessary for medical students to visit other 
states and foreign lands to acquire the qualifi- 
cations and title of Doctor of Medicine. A few 
years previous to the Civil War, the Now Or- 
leans School of Medicine entered into the field 
of education, but the war and financial troubles 
resulting therefrom caused the school to close 
after a short but brilliant career. During the 
war, many of the physicians proved their 
patriotism by abandoning their practice to fol- 
low the Confederate Army as surgeons. Their 
skill and the success of their operations will 
never be forgotten by the soldiers who wore the 
pray. The alumni of the schools of medicine of 
Now Orleans have deservedly obtained such a 
reputation, both at home and abroad, that there 
is no longer need to seek outside their ranks for 
professors to fill any vacancy in the Medical 
Department of Tulane. 

The Homeopathic School. The School of 
Hahnemann has been represented in New Or- 



leans since 1841. The pioneer was Doctor 
Taxile of Toulon, France. Doctor Jules 
Matthieu was the first American member of 
this school. Doctor W. H. Holcombe was its 
most prominent representative in recent years. 

Eminent Physicians. Physicians of the past 
and the present have contended with the 
gigantic forces of disease and devoted their 
scientific attainments to the preservation of the 
health of the community. Pages could be 
written of their noble lives. Doctor C. A. 
Luzenberg came to New Orleans in 1829 and 
revolutionized medical practice of that time in 
Louisiana. Doctor Wan-en Stone was the first 
physician in New Orleans to use chloroform for 
the alleviation of human suffering. Doctor 
T. G. Richardson was one of the most prominent 
physicians in New Orleans. He served as sur- 
geon of General Bragg 's staff during the Civil 
War. From 1865 to 1885, he was dean of the 
medical department of Tulane University. 
Doctor Quitman Kohnke was one of the 
pioneers of the modern doctrine of the trans- 
mission of yellow fever by the mosquito. 

Medical Societies. The Orleans Parish Med- 
ical Society, which has a large membership, was 
organized in 1878, by a number of physicians 
who were desirous of affiliating with the State 
and National Associations. The Pan-American 
Medical Society was organized in March, 1914, 
to promote a high standard of professional 
efficiency and to develop a more thorough un- 
derstanding among the laity of the study and 
knowledge of preventive medicine. 

Medicine To-Day. To-day, New Orleans 
boasts of a great number of eminent surgeons 
and physicians, whose reputations are inter- 
national. Many of them are recognized as 
authorities on medical topics, and the gold 
medal for the greatest achievement in scientific 
research in 1913 was awarded to a New Orleans 
physician. Dr. C. C. Bass. 

TOPICS: Indian Medicine Men: Early History of Medi- 
cine; Development of Medicine; The Homeopathic 
School. 

REFERENCES: Mumford's Narrative of Medicine in 
America: Parks's History of Medicine; Dr. Joseph 
Jones's Medical and Surgical Memoirs; J. C. War- 
ren's History of Medical Education from the Most 
Remote to the Most Recent Times; American 
Medical Association Journals; Department of 
Archives. 



104 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 3. BANKING. 



History of Banking. Louisiana owes its 
foundation to a bank, the Mississippi Company, 
which was the Royal Bank of France. The 
failure of John Law's scheme caused great 
financial distress among the colonists. Banking 
in Louisiana under the French domination 
proved a failure, but after the transfer to Spain, 
the system somewhat improved. When the 
United States took possession of Louisiana, 
Governor Claiborne, recognizing the poor finan- 
cial conditions, established the Louisiana Bank 
in 1804. Julian Poydras was its president and 
John McDonogh a director. Two banks were 
established in 1811. One of these, the Louisiana 
Planters' Bank, was organized for the con- 
venience and advancement of the agricultural 
interests of the Territory. The success of this 
plan of raising money for the development of 
the planting interests of Louisiana led to the 
formation of a number of improvement banks. 
Among these was the Gas Company Bank, 
formed for the purpose of introducing gas into 
New Orleans. The Canal Bank was chartered 
for the construction of a canal in the American 
portion of the city, and the Carrollton Bank for 
the building of the New Orleans and Carrollton 
Street Railway. The Commercial Bank was or- 
ganized for the purpose of providing New Or- 
leans with waterworks. The Mechanics and 
Traders' Bank was formed for the benefit of 
the manufacturing and mechanical interests. 

"When the panic of 1837 struck New Orleans, 
fourteen out of the fifteen banks suspended 
specie payment, thereby forfeiting their char- 
ters. In 1839, the Legislature, recognizing the 
fact that the suspension of the banks was diie 
to the general derangement of the monetary 
system, reinstated them in their charter rights. 
Poor financial conditions continued until 1845. 
The banking history from 1845 until 1860 was 
devoid of incident. In 1860, Louisiana stood 
fourth in banking capital and second in specie 
holdings. 

During the Civil War, deposits shrunk and 
the banks had to accept Conederate notes. Gen- 
eral B. F. Butler insisted that the banks had 
violated their charter by suspending specie pay- 
ment, and introducing Confederate notes as cur- 
rency. During his and Banks' administration, 



there were frequent quarrels between the bank 
officials and the military authorities. A large 
number of claims resulted, and much litigation 
grew out of them. In 1877, in 1893, and in 1907, 
New Orleans suffered from the general de- 
pressed conditions of the money market. 

The New Orleans Clearing House. The New 
Orleans Clearing House was organized in May, 
1872. In all cases of financial trouble, the Clear- 
ing House has proved a great advantage to the 
banks and the business community, for its cer- 
tificates are accepted everywhere, thereby re- 
lieving strained financial conditions. 

The Present Banking System. There are 
now nine banks in New Orleans. The Whit- 
ney-Central leads with assets of $60,363,696.52. 
The Hibernia is second with $42,477,824.08. 
The oldest bank is the Canal Bank and Trust 
Company, established in 1831. It went into 
liquidation in 1843, but reorganized shortly 
afterwards. It is now the Canal-Commercial 
Trust & Savings Bank. 

The contribution of the banking business to 
public wealth is measured by the facilities it 
offers for the transaction of business, and by 
the extension of credit in various forms. As a 
rule, the banks are required to keep a large re- 
serve. In New Orleans, the conditions are 
liberal, the reserve being 25% of their assets, 
of which only 8% is in cash. 

Insurance Companies. The largest life and 
fire insurance companies of the United States 
have branch offices in New Orleans. The home 
companies do a large business, not only for the 
city and the state, but for many neighboring 
states. 

The Homestead Associations. The home- 
stead associations have done a vast amount of 
good in facilitating the purchase and building 
of hundreds of houses for people of moderate 
means. They have encouraged the spirit of 
economy and have enabled many families to 
own their homes, who would not have been able 
to do so but for their help. 

TOPICS: History of Banking; The Clearing House. 
REFERENCES: Rightor's History. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



105 



SECTION 4. TRADES. 



History. Very little has been written on 
this subject in New Orleans, because, before the 
Civil War, the crafts and trades received but 
scant attention in Louisiana. The wealth of the 
people was invested almost exclusively in agri- 
culture, and New Orleans was a commercial 
center. 

Slavery had a tendency to crowd mechanics 
out of New Orleans, and in ante-bellum days the 
general desire was to have mechanical work 
done by negro slaves, many of whom were 
skilled workmen. They often paid their owners 
for the privilege of hiring themselves to others, 
and by this means accumulated enough money 
to purchase their freedom. 

The white laborers from 1860 to 1865 con- 
sisted of men over fifty, boys, women, and men 
of military age, exempted because of physical 
weakness or wounds. Industries calling for 
white skilled labor were but comparatively 
little developed in 1860. When the War ended 
in 1865, the labor system of the South was dis- 
organized. One of the results of the War was 
to awaken the South to a full realization of 
her lack of knowledge concerning mechanical 
and other industrial pursuits. By 1880, with 
the help of the United States Government, 
mechanical and industrial colleges were estab- 
lished in the Southern States. The splendid 
work was begun which has resulted in the 
preparation of many men and women for indus- 
trial service in the country. These schools were 
ridiculed by thoughtless people and by some of 
the leading journals. Manual labor, among the 
white population, was considered more respect- 
able, and as Northern and European capital 
began to flow into Louisiana, ■ skilled labor 
found its way into the city. 

Organization of Labor. The history of New 
Orleans' trade unionism begins in the first 
decade of the nineteenth century, when an as- 
sociation of printers was formed in 1810. From 
1830 to 1836, local unions of printers were or- 
ganized in New Orleans. The immediate cause 
of all organizations or wage labor has been and 
is the rise of prices in the cost of living. Fol- 
lowing the natural trend, here, as elsewhere, 
combinations formed among the capitalists and 
workmen. The problems that have arisen from 
these combinations have steadily multiplied, 
and have become one of the chief features in our 
state and national government. Many of the 



problems have been solved through the efforts 
of trade unions. The adequate wage scale pro- 
tects capital, to some degree, from profitless 
competition. The evils of child labor have been 
lessened by legislation. 

There are more than 100 labor organizations 
in New Orleans all affiliated with the American 
Federation of Labor. The 30,000 organized 
workers are grouped under several Trades 
Council, viz., the Central Trades and Labor 
Council, Building Trade, Metal Trade, Allied 
Printing Trade and Dock and Cotton Councils. 
There is also the Central Labor Union, com- 
posed of colored organizations. Different unions 
in New Orleans, indicating trades followed 
here, are Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, 
Stereotypers and Engravers, Street Railway, 
Paper Hangers, Teamsters, Chauffeurs and 
Helpers, Moving Picture Operators; Coffee, 
Spice and Baking Powders, Bill Posters and 
Billers, Ship Yard Helpers and Laborers, Elec- 
trical Workers, Painters, Sheet Metal Workers, 
Railway Carmen, Iron Workers, Cigarmakers, 
Hoisting Engineers, Syrup Canners and Pack- 
ers, Machinists, Mill Carpenters and Joiners, 
Carpenters, Federal Employers, Printing Press- 
men, Plasterers, Broom and Whisk Makers, 
Locomotive Engineers, Plumbers and Steam 
Fitters, Drug Clerks, Ship Carpenters and 
Joiners, Marine Engineers, Boiler Makers, Rail- 
way Carmen, Sign and Pictorial Writers, Steam 
and Operating Engineers, Waiters, Bartenders, 
Railroad Trainmen, Railway Conductors, Loco- 
motive Firemen and Enginemen, Railway 
Clerks, Freight Handlers, Station Employees, 
Sailors, Marine Cooks and Stewards, Draughts- 
men, Blacksmiths and Helpers, Railway Clerks, 
Barbers, Marine Firemen, Oilers and Water- 
tenders, Fire Fighters, Tobacco Workers, 
Bakery and Confectionery Workers. Retail 
Clerks, Theatrical and Stage Employees. 
Brewery Workmen, Book Binders, Newspaper 
Carriers, Building Trades consisting of Elec- 
tricians, Painters and Decorators, Carpenters 
and Joiners, Structural Steel Workers, Build- 
ing Laborers, Tile Setters, Marble and Stone 
Cutters, Pile Drivers, Hoisting Engineers, Plas- 
terers, Bricklayers. 

TOPICS: Trades; Past Conditions; Present Conditions. 
REFERENCES: Archives of the Cabildo and City Hall. 



CHAPTER XL 



Charitable Institutions. 



SECTION 1. HOSPITALS. 



A spirit of generosity has always been char- 
acteristic of the South and of New Orleans, in 
particular. The poor and the suffering, the 
aged and the infirm, the widowed and the or- 
phaned have always found and, it may be 
hoped, always will find a tender chord of sym- 
pathy in the hearts of Orleanians. Looking 
back to the history of Bienville's time, we find 
the Ursuline nuns nursing the sick, caring for 
many Indian girls, and for French children 
orphaned by the Indian war. 

Charity Hospital. The oldest charitable in- 
stitution in the Missis- 
sippi Valley is the Char- 
ity Hospital, founded by 
an humble sailor, one 
Jean Louis, who, by 
trade and barter on his 
many voyages, had accu- 
mulated a fortune. This 
sum, $2,500, though 
small, judged according 
to present-day standards, 
was sufficient to purchase 
a building which was 
fitted up as the "Hospice 
des Pauvres." It stood 

upon the west side of Rampart Street, between 
St. Peter and Toulouse. The low, marshy 
ground rendered this a very unsuitable loca- 
tion for a hospital. The "Hospice des 
Pauvres," however, continued its humanitarian 
mission until destroyed by a hurricane in 1779. 
No concerted action was taken for rebuilding 
until 1784, when Don Almonaster y Roxas, the 
great benefactor of the colony, erected on the 
same site, a new building of brick and mortar. 
It was called the Hospital of St. Charles, in 
honor of the king of Spain. Although Don 











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CHARITY HOSPITAL 



Almonaster had built the new hospital at his 
own cost and annually bestowed upon it a suffi- 
cient sum for its maintenance, he was bitterly 
opposed by members of the Cabildo. A com- 
munication from the king approved his action 
and declared him to be the "founder, patron, 
and endower" of the institution. 

After the transfer of Louisiana to the United 
States, the affairs of the hospital passed from 
the hands of the Cabildo to the more practical 
management of American mayors and council- 
men. A great fire totally destroyed the Hos- 
pital of St. Charles in 
1809. All the patients 
were rescued and were 
quartered in a private 
residence, which contin- 
ued to be used for this 
purpose until 1814. The 
square bounded by 
Canal, Common, Dry- 
ades, and Baronne was 
purchased as the site for 
a new building. Here, 
the institution entered 
upon the third stage of 
its career as the New 
Orleans Charity Hospital. 

In 1830, it was removed to its present loca- 
tion in Tulane Avenue between Freret and 
Howard Streets, where, at the time, only the 
central building was erected. Built of solid 
masonry, this substantial structure has with- 
stood the ravages of time. It has been so added 
to and extended that now the whole square and 
parts of those adjoining are covered with the 
buildings of the institution. 
(See Chapter IV.). 



SECTION 2. ASYLUMS. 



Poydras Asylum. About the time that Lou- mingo. His only assets seem to have been a 
isiana was ceded to Spain, there arrived in New handsome face and pleasing manner. What 
Orleans a young French refugee from San Do- little capital he could command was invested 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



107 



in peddler's stock with which he ascended the 
coast to try his fortune. Enterprise and thrift 
were well rewarded, for soon we hear Julien 
Poydras, the one-time peddler, spoken of as the 
richest man in the Spanish settlement, a suc- 
cessful merchant, planter, and banker. In the 
midst of his wealth, he did not forget the pov- 
erty and struggle of earlier days; 
lie gave unstintedly out of his 
abundance to help those in need. 
The city of his adoption received a 
large part of his munificent bene- 
factions. Here, by the donation of 
a large lot and house in Poydras 
Street, he founded in 1816 the first 
orphan asylum in the state. The 
Legislature appropriated $4,000 for 
its benefit. It sheltered fourteen 
children the first year; but there- 
after the number rapidly increased. 
The asylum was founded for girls, 
with the provision that any deserv- 
ing girl, whether an orphan or not, should be 
received by the institution. The business sec- 
tion of the city gradually spread until it em- 
braced Poydras Street, after which, the asylum 
was moved to its present location on Magazine 
Street and Peters Avenue. The administration 
is conducted by a board of directresses. The 
orphanage is supported 
by revenues from prop- 
erty left by Julien Poy- 
dras for that purpose. 

St. Mary's Orphan 
Asylum. The history 
of this institution dates 
back to the year 1835. 
The Sisters of Charity 
have the care of the 
children, and the only 
condition of admission 
is that of orphanage. A 
board manages the busi- 
ness affairs of the insti- 
tution, which is sup- 
ported partly by pri- 
vate contributions and 
partly by revenues from 
property. 

New Orleans Female 
Orphan Asylum. The 
Sisters of Charity with- 
drew from the Poydras 




JULIAN POYDRAS 




MARGARET'S MONUMENT. 
In Front of N. 0. Female Orphan Asylum, the Model Orphanage of the City. 



Asylum to establish an institution of their own 
for the purpose of "receiving, harboring, nurs- 
ing, raising, maintaining, and educating desti- 
tute female orphans under the age of fifteen." 
The girls were to be entirely under the control 
of the Sisters until they reached their majority, 
or were married. In front of the asylum is a 
triangle converted into a park 
graced by a monument erected 
to the virtues and benefactions 
of a woman. This is the statue 
of "Margaret," whose interesting 
history is intimately connected 
with that of the asylum she 
befriended. 

Margaret Haughery, of Irish 
origin, came to New Orleans from 
Baltimore. Left alone by the deaths 
of her husband and child, she ob- 
tained employment in the Poydras 
Asylum. When the Sisters of 
Charity removed to their own estab- 
lishment, Margaret went with them to manage 
the dairy. Soon after, she established and con- 
ducted a profitable bakery, so as to diminish 
the cost of bread used by the asylum. With 
little education, she mastered and directed the 
successful management of a large manufactory 
of flour, while personally aiding in the care of 

the largest female or- 
phan asylum in the city. 
Her charities were nu- 
merous and bestowed 
without ostentation. 



St. Elizabeth's House 
of Industry. In con- 
nection with their Fe- 
male Orphan Asylum, 
the Sisters of Charity 
opened in 1855 a branch 
in Napoleon Avenue to 
receive ,«■ i r 1 s over 
twelve years of age. 
Here, they are given 
an industrial education, 
preparing them to make 
their way in the world. 
The institution, through 
the exquisite needle- 
work, tine laundering, 
and other industries of 
the inmates, is largely 
self-supporting, al- 



108 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



though valuable property belongs to the asylum. 
Many a young lady is proud to say that her 
trousseau has been made at St. Elizabeth's. 

St. Vincent's Infant Asylum. Another 
branch of the Female Asylum, conducted by 
the Sisters of Charity, is the St. Vincent's In- 
fant Asylum, established in 1862. The kinder- 
garten, nurseries, and dormitories are interest- 
ing sights and models of neatness. After the 
age of seven years, the children are no longer 
retained at this asylum; the girls are sent to 
the asylum in Camp Street, and the boys to 
some other institution. 

Asylum for Destitute Orphan Boys. A soci- 
ety for the "Relief of Destitute Orphan Boys" 
was organized by members of the Presbyterian 
Church. When, in 1841, a fire destroyed the 
home, John McDonogh gave to the society 
$100,000 with which a house on St. Charles 
Avenue was built. This property has recently 
been sold and the asylum removed to more 
commodious quarters and advantageous loca- 
tion on the west side of the river, just below 
Algiers. 

Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home. 
The terrible yellow fever epidemic of 1853 left 
so many orphaned children that the asylums of 
the city were taxed beyond their capacity. To 
relieve conditions, the Howard Association de- 
voted a fund of $5,000 toward a new asylum; 
this was supplemented from other sources, and 
the outcome was the Seventh Street Protestant 
Orphans' Home. Both boys and girls are re- 
ceived by this institution. 

Jewish Widows' and Orphans' Home. The 
Hebrews of the city maintain a well kept home 
for the widows and orphans of their faith. In 
1888, the present spacious and substantial build- 
ing on the corner of St. Charles and Peters 



Avenues was occupied by the "Home." The 
society that controls the institution dates back 
to 1855. 

St. Anna's Asylum. St. Anna's Asylum was 
founded in 1850 by Dr. W. N. Mercer in memory 
of his daughter, Anna. Its object is the relief 
of impoverished gentlewomen, but small chil- 
dren whose mothers are inmates of the institu- 
tion are also recipients of its beneficence. 

Episcopal Home. The Sisters of the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church conduct a well managed 
home for girls in Jackson Avenue. 

The Soldiers' Home. The Soldiers' Home, 
sometimes called Camp Nicholls, as it was 
founded during the administration of Governor 
F. T. Nicholls, is situated on the banks of Bayou 
St. John. It is a retreat for maimed and dis- 
abled Confederate veterans. The board of 
directors for the Home consists of five members 
from the Association of the Army of Tennessee, 
five from the Association of the Army of North- 
ern Virginia, and five appointed by the Gov- 
ernor of Louisiana. 

The Touro-Shakespeare Almshouse. Those 
whose poverty and infirmities make them ob- 
jects of public charity find shelter at the Touro- 
Shakespeare Almshouse. 

Other Institutions. Several institutions for 
needy colored people are conducted in the city, 
one of the most notable being the Tomy Lafon 
Orphan Boys' Asylum on Gentilly Road. 

There are many other institutions in the 
city, whose object is the alleviation of suffering. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Hospitals; Section 2, Asylums. 

REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, 
Rightor; History and Present Conditions of New 
Orleans (1SS0), Waring and Cable; Cyclopedia of 
Louisiana, Fortier; Guide Book. 



CHAPTER XII. 



Education. 



SECTION 1. COLONIAL EDUCATION. 



Father Cecil's School for Boys. The early 
history of New Orleans was so filled with the 
struggle for existence that little time or energy 
was devoted to education. There were forests 
to be cleared, homes to be built, sickness and 
attacks of Indians to be guarded against, and 
an ever-increasing number of unworthy or 
worthless colonists to be provided for. Amidst 



such unsettled conditions, neither the governor 
nor individuals could turn their attention to 
schools. In 1724, Father Cecil, a Capuchin 
monk, opened a school for boys near the St. 
Louis Cathedral. He was the first teacher in 
Louisiana and was successful in imparting a 
fairly good elementary education to the youth 
of the day. 



THE URSULINES. 



Bienville Secures the Services of the Ursu- 
lines. Father Cecil was offering educational 
opportunities to the boys, but a generation of 
girls was growing up with only the limited 
training of the home circle. Bienville realized 
this and consulted the Jesuit priest, Father 
Beaubois, about securing teachers for the girls. 



The Ursuline nuns who were conducting 
flourishing and well patronized schools in 
France were recommended and their services 
secured in 1726. Although Bienville was no 
longer governor when the Ursulines arrived in 
Louisiana, he deserves the credit of having 
established the first girls' school in the colony. 



1824 



<s-^s> 




THREE HOMES OF THE URSULINES. 



110 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Establishment of the Ursulines. Eleven 
Sisters under the direction of Mother Tranche- 
pain embarked at Lorient, France, on Febru- 
ary 22, 1727. After a long and hazardous voy- 
age they reached the land of their adoption on 
August 7th of the same year. Joyful crowds 
assembled on the river banks and along the 
streets to welcome them, and every courtesy 
was extended to them. Governor Perrier 
and his wife were most cordial to the Sisters 
and saw them installed in Bienville's house, 
which was the best in the colony. Here, they 
were to remain until their own convent could 
be erected. 

Treaty With the Company of the Indies. A 
treaty was drawn up between the Company of 
the Indies, then in control of Louisiana, and 
the Ursulines before the latter left France. The 
provisions were that in return for the care of 
the hospital and the education of girls, the 
nuns were to receive from the company a 
convent and a plantation and 500 livres (livre 
I8V2 cents) each, besides having the expense 
of the voyage paid. They were guaranteed 
600 livres until they could realize something 
from their jjlantation, and this contract did 
not bind them to remain in the colony should 
they find it distasteful. 

Removed to Their Convent. There is no 
record of any Sisters having returned to 
France. All were satisfied with their work 
in a strange land. Their convent on Chartres 
Street was completed in 1734 and they took 
possession of it with great ceremony. The 
beloved Superioress, Mother Tranchepain, had 
ended her days of usefulness, but Bienville, 
patron and benefactor of the Sisters, had 
returned to the colony as governor for the 
third time and took an active part in the cere- 
mony. At the time of this change of resi- 
dence, many day scholars, twenty boarders, 
three parlor boarders, and three orphans were 
under the care of the nuns. 

System of Education. Religious classes 
were conducted for two hours every day for 
the benefit of Indian and negro women. The 



Sisters, through the influence of religion and 
education, sought to uplift the inferior races 
and lead them into the ways of civilization. 
The daughters of the colonists were taught 
languages, history, literature, some science, 
mathematics, and the art of letter-writing. 
Great emphasis was laid upon instruction in 
music and sewing, accomplishments required 
of every girl of the time. Nimble fingers that 
could lighten dull hours with gay music or 
fashion dainty garments made their owners 
more attractive helpmates. Wives were scarce, 
though, and so readily did the girls exchange 
the duties of the classroom for those of the 
household that Sister Madeleine writes, 
"Henceforth no girl was allowed to marry 
without being first instructed by the Nuns." 

Influence in Colony. This instruction bore 
fruit throughout the entire colony. The girls 
carried from the convent to the home circle 
polish, charm and refinement, the result of 
education, and seldom found in the rough sur- 
roundings of pioneer life. 

Lack of School for Boys. As a result of 
this training, the women far surpassed the men 
in culture, for the latter had no means of 
obtaining higher education without going to 
Europe. The fundamentals were taught in a 
few primary schools; but Bienville, realizing 
the lack of opportunity for young men in 
Louisiana, petitioned the government to estab- 
lish a college for boys in New Orleans. Ac- 
cording to his letter, the sons of wealthy 
parents were reared in luxury and idleness, 
utterly ruinous to character, or at great 
expense were sent to France to be educated, 
where they acquired a distaste for their colo- 
nial homes. He represented that many per- 
sons residing in Vera Cruz would be glad of 
the advantages offered by such a college and 
would help to maintain it. The government, 
however, considered Louisiana too remote and 
too insignificant to warrant any such estab- 
lishment. So it was not until after the 
Americans assumed control of the colony that 
a college for boys was opened. 



SPANISH SCHOOLS. 



Interest Manifested by Spanish Governors. 

In 1768, Louisiana passed under the control of 
Spain. Unlike the French government, the 



Spanish authorities manifested some interest 
in education. Ulloa was a highly cultured 
man, but failed, through his unpopularity, to 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Ill 



benefit the colony. O'Reilly and his successors 
fostered learning in the colony, but still no 
institution of higher education was founded. 
Many a debonair Spanish official married a 
convent-trained girl, thus forming a friendship 
for the Ursulines. The Nuns' school was well 
patronized under this regime and they received 
several Spanish ladies into their convent. 

Spanish School Founded. An effort to 
make the use of the Spanish language more 
universal in the colony, and to train the youth 
according to Spanish ideals resulted in the 
government ordering a school to be established 
in New Orleans in 1772. 

People's Distrust of Spanish Schools. The 
Louisianians, tossed from one king to another, 
felt intense resentment against the Spanish 
and clung with fierce pride to their own customs 
and languages. Although Spanish was used 



for all official proceedings, French was the 
language of the home, the church, and the 
school. Complaint was made to. Spain that 
merchants refused to keep their books in any 
language but French. Even the influence of 
just and politic rulers like Unzaga, Galvez and 
Miro was not sufficient to stamp out this preju- 
dice. The Spanish school was, therefore, not 
well attended, never having had more than 
thirty pupils, which number dwindled down to 
eight or ten after a fire had destroyed the 
original building. 

French Schools. Those who could afford 
to do so sent their children to France to be 
educated; but there were eight French schools 
where several hundred profited by the instruc- 
tion. Many refugees from San Domingo, who 
opened little schools to eke out a livelihood, 
received staunch support from the French 
families. 



SECTION 2. EARLY YEARS OF AMERICAN RULE. 



Private Schools. The influx of Americans, 
after the purchase in 1803, caused a greater 
demand for schools. As there was no system 
of free schools, this need was met by a number 
of teachers, who conducted private schools at 
moderate prices. According to the advertise- 
ments in the old newspaper files, learning 
flourished in the Faubourg Ste. Marie (the 
American quarter), where there were also 
evening schools and summer sessions. 

Discipline. Frequently these pioneers of 
education in American New Orleans were men 
who exacted the most rigid discipline from 
their scholars by means of the dunce cap, the 
rod and in some extreme cases by enforced 
kneeling on brick dust and tacks. 



Course of Study. The subjects accentu- 
ated then were almost as different from the 
present day curriculum as was the mode of 
discipline. 

English, French, and other languages, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, geography, history, mythology, 
chronology are mentioned in all advertise- 
ments, while "embroidery, print and crape 
work, French darning and every kind of fancy 
work, as well as j:>lain sewing and marking" 
are specified for girls. No young lady's edu- 
cation was considered complete without music 
and dancing. These were frequently taught 
by special teachers who went from house to 
house and also gave lessons in "deportment," 
that is, the correct manner of entering a parlor, 
of standing, of sitting, of addressing persons." 



COLLEGE OF ORLEANS. 



Foundati6n. American legislators were 
more impressed with the necessity for public 
education than the French or Spanish had 
been, but they made the mistake of establish- 
ing too many academies and colleges instead of 
elementary schools. The most noteworthy of 
these was the College of Orleans, opened in 
1805, where many prominent men received 



their education, among them being Gayarre, 
the historian. 

Course of Study and Discipline. The 
course of study was comprehensive, including 
Greek, French, Latin, English, Spanish, arith- 
metic, algebra, geometry, mechanics, history 
and literature. Interest in composition was 
stimulated bv literarv exercises. Poetic as 



112 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



well as prose composition was encouraged, and 
occasionally, a paper published verses by some 
enterprising student. Lessons in music, danc- 
ing, and fencing were given those who paid 
extra. Life at the College of Orleans was not 
luxurious; the rising sun found the boys about 
their tasks ; a half loaf of dry bread constituted 
breakfast. 

Support of College. As there was no 
definite arrangement for the support of the 
college, its finances were very unsettled. To 
the small and irregular appropriations by the 
Legislature, were added funds from two lot- 
teries established for this purpose. Even 
these sources of revenue proved insufficient to 
maintain a flourishing institution, and the pro- 
ceeds from the licenses granted to gambling 
houses was utilized. 

Decline. The College of Orleans flourished 
for about twenty years, but with the appoint- 



ment as principal of Lakanal, one of the parties 
who caused the death of Louis XVI., the school 
began to decline. Parents refused to commit 
their children to the guidance of a regicide 
and the College of Orleans passed out of exist- 
ence. Its failure was also the result of injudi- 
cious regulation of the terms of admission. 
Parents, who could afford to do so, were re- 
quired to pay for their sons' tuition; but many 
sons of destitute parents were admitted with- 
out charge. These pupils were dissatisfied, 
because they received the sobriquet of charity 
students from the boys. 

"Public Schools." In 1826 the college of 
Orleans was supplanted by one central and two 
primary schools. Though supposedly public 
schools, gratuitous instruction was limited to 
fifty pupils in each school. To the revenue ob- 
tained from the gambling houses was added 
about $3000 annually from theatre licenses. 



SECTION 3. PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 



Louisiana was far behind the other states 
of the Union in organizing a system of public 
schools, because the idea of self-taxation for 
educational purposes was entirely new to its 
people. However, when Americans from other 
states began to form a large proportion of the 
population, the question of taxation for school 
support was agitated more fully. 

Accordingly, the public school system of 
New Orleans was inaugurated by the Legisla- 
ture of 1841, which decreed that "the councils 
of the different municipalities of New Orleans 
are authorized and required to establish within 
their respective limits one or more public 
schools for the free instruction of the children 
residing therein, to make such regulations as 
they judge proper for the organization, adminis- 
tration, and discipline of the said schools, and 
to levy a tax for the maintenance of the same. 
Every white child residing in a municipality 
shall be admitted to and receive instruction 
therein. ' ' 

These schools did not spring immediately 
into popular favor; but within a few years 
their ultimate success was assured. The people 
soon became anxious to patronize schools 
supported by self-imposed taxes, and where the 
terms of admission were the same to all. The 
American quarter in 1844 had three schools, 



eleven teanhers, and 615 pupils, but in the fol- 
lowing year, to accommodate an enrollment of 
1,029 pupils, the number of schools was 
increased to six and the number of teachers to 
thirty-six. 

Public Schools in the State, 1845. Follow- 
ing the success of the new schools, the Legis- 
lature organized a similar system throughout 
the parishes, to be supported also by direct 
taxation. The eminent scholar, Alexander 
Dimitry, was appointed the first State Super- 
intendent of Education and his influence was 
felt in New Orleans. 

Normal School. The growth of the system 
created a need for a normal school where 
efficient teachers could be trained for work in 
the elementary schools. This need was met in 
1858 by the establishment in New Orleans of 
the first normal school in the South. 

From this as a beginning the New Orleans 
Normal School has grown to meet the needs of 
the present educational system, preparing 
teachers for instructing children of the elemen- 
tary schools. These embryo teachers do their 
practice work in the city schools. 

Civil War and Reconstruction. B. F. Butler, 
Commander of the Federal army of occupation 
in New Orleans during the Civil War, consoli- 
dated the four school districts under one board 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



113 



and one superintendent. There were to be a 
uniform system of grading and uniform text- 
books used throughout the city, which greatly 
facilitated the adjustment of pupils who moved 
from one district to another. 

Education of Negroes. Troubles in educa- 
tional circles came with the Emancipation 
Proclamation. The Freedman's Bureau, 
created by the United States Government to 
assist liberated slaves, furnished free transpor- 
tation for teachers and supplies and expended 
large sums for negro schools in New Orleans. 
Little objection was raised to these schools, 
but the law passed by the "carpet-bag" Legis- 
lature of 1870, requiring the white schools to 
admit any negro children who would apply, 
caused great agitation and bitter feeling. 
Although there were but few actual admissions 
of colored children into the New Orleans 
schools, the furore did not subside until sepa- 
rate schools were provided for the two races. 

School Buildings. As soon as the race ques- 
tion in the schools was somewhat settled, 
attention was directed to better buildings. Out 
of the funds left by John McDonogh for this 
purpose, six well-equipped schoolhouses were 
erected. This money has been utilized to meet 
the needs of increased enrollment until over 
thirty McDonogh schools have been built. 

Overthrow of Reconstruction Government. 
The reconstruction government had spent vast 
sums of money for education, recklessly and 
injudiciously extending educational advant- 
ages to hundreds of non-taxpaying negroes to 
the exclusion of the whites, who bore the 
burden of taxation. One of the first acts of 
the General Assembly, after the overthrow of 
"carpet-bag" rule and the assumption of 
power by the better element, which elected 
Francis T. Nicholls governor, was to provide 
for education. Louisiana, mercilessly crushed by 
four years of war and left burdened with a 
monstrous debt yearly increased by the extrav- 
agant rule of unscrupulous politicians, had 
been given a setback from which she rallied 
bravely, but the effects of which are felt even 
to the present time. 

R. M. Lusher — William 0. Rogers — Warren 
Easton. Taking all of this into consideration and 
remembering the natural prejudice of Louisi- 
anians to a system of gratuitous education, the 
schools of New Orleans rank very favorably 
with the best of those of northern cities, where 



public schools are an inherited institution of 
the people, and where revenue from taxation 
has been uninterrupted. The services of Robert 
M. Lusher as Superintendent of Schools have 
left a marked impress on the schools of the city. 
William 0. Rogers as Superintendent of the 
New Orleans schools rendered valuable service 
to this system for many years. From 1887 until 
his decease in 1910, the position was held by 
Warren Easton, whose success is attested by the 
devotion of teachers and pupils during his long 
incumbency and the universal reverence now 
accorded his memory. 

Within the past few years the schools have 
made wonderful advancement in organization. 

Management and Maintenance. Before the 
adoption of the new city charter, the schools 
were governed by a board of seventeen mem- 
bers, one elected from each ward in the city. 
Under that system each member of the board 
had the appointment of all teachers to schools 
in the ward which he represented. 

Since 1912, the Orleans Parish School 
Board has been distinct from and independent 
of the State Board. Under the new city charter, 
it consists of five members who serve gratuit- 
ously and have complete control of the affairs 
of the Public Schools. (See Chapter XV. for 
Maintenance of Schools.) 

Division of Schools. At present, the 
system includes elementary schools, secondary 
or high schools, a normal, and an industrial 
school for girls, which is soon to have its 
counterpart in a trade school for boys. The 
school year of about nine months is divided 
into terms, and promotions are made semi- 
annually, so that a retarded pupil has to re- 
peat only one-half year's work. 

Elementary Schools. The elementary 
schools comprise kindergarten, primary 
grades, covering four years work, and gram- 
mar grades, covering four years more. 
Previous attendance at kindergarten is not a 
requisite for admission into the primary 
grades. Any child six years of age or over, 
who complies with the rules of the schools, is 
eligible. 

Departmental Teaching. The system of 
departmental teaching having been tested in 
several schools and found successful was intro- 
duced throughout the city in 1913 in the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades. Each teacher 
handling one principal subject and, according 



114 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



to conditions in the school, one or more minor 
subjects, is enabled to attain greater knowl- 
edge of her specialty and more efficiency in 
imparting it. Arithmetic, English, History, 
Geography, and Literature are given more 
time and attention in these grades than are 
other subjects. Soine schools are supplied 
with a stereopticon or a moving picture 
machine, by which historical and geographical 
facts can be presented pictorially. Drawing 
and Music are taught in the schools as neces- 
sary elements of cultre. 

High Schools. The city supports three splen- 
did high schools. The Esplanade Avenue Girls' 



Modern School Buildings. The three high 
schools are among the handsomest educational 
buildings in the city and their classroom ar- 
rangement and laboratory equipment equals 
that of most colleges. Many of the school 
houses have been erected through the gener- 
osity of philanthropic citizens. The new 
McDonogh 14 building is as fine as any in the 
country. The Beauregard School in Canal 
Street is especially attractive because of the 
beautiful grounds that form a setting for its 
artistic architecture. The oldest public school 
building now in use in the city is Jackson 
School, named after the hero of the Battle of 




WARREN EASTON BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL. 



High School for the benefit of the girls below 
Canal Street, the Sophie B. Wright Girls' High 
School in Napoleon Avenue, and the Warren 
Easton Boys' High School in Canal Street. 
The high school courses are elective, and the 
pupils have a wide selection of subjects, as some 
are designed simply for a business course, 
others to prepare for normal school or college. 
For graduation, the pupil must attain a certain 
number of points, that is, successfully complete 
so many subjects. The standard of gradu- 
ation is being raised, so the number of points 
required is changed from year to year. 



Xew Orleans. One portion was built in 1845, 
and around that various additions have been 
made. 

Evening Schools. Three times a week, 
evening classes are given for the benefit of 
hoys and girls over fourteen years of age, who 
have to work. There are also adult classes 
for those who did not receive an early educa- 
tion and for foreigners desirous of learning 
English. 

Manual Training. The aim of the present- 
day education is to develop the powers and 
activities of the child as far as practicable. To 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



115 



this end, manual training has been introduced 
for the boys of the seventh and eighth grades. 
The boy in measuring, planing, sawing, fitting, 
and staining has the pleasure of seeing the 
work advance from a piece of rough lumber to 
the finished product — a rack, an ornamental 
box and sometimes a chair or table. 

Domestic Science. A domestic science, and 
a domestic art department train the girls for 
the more practical affairs of life. One period, 
each week, is given to the girls of the seventh 
and eighth grades. Under the supervision of 
a skilled teacher, the Eighth A and Eighth B 
girls in the domestic science department learn 



training of mind and body are essential to com- 
plete education. Daily calisthenic drills and 
class athletics for boys and girls help to insure 
straight bodies, active limbs, and well-de- 
veloped lungs. Competitive games between 
teams selected from the different schools 
assist in this physical development and create 
for many an interest in school affairs, which 
otherwise would be lacking. The boys' games 
are basket-hall, indoor-ball, and base-ball, ac- 
cording to the season of the year. The girls 
play basket-ball and indoor-ball. The vic- 
torious teams are awarded trophies, which the 
winning schools keep for one year. The 




McDOKOOH No. 14. 



the chemical constituents of the materials they 
handle, the relative food values, and the most 
wholesome combinations. They are taught to 
plan a perfect meal, perfect not only from an 
epicurean, but from a healthful standpoint. 

Domestic Art. The girls of the Seventh B 
and Seventh A are taught sewing. This depart- 
ment has been most successful. The girls of 
the Eighth A have made their dresses for the 
closing exercises of the grammar schools. 

Department of Physical Training. As the 
happiness of an individual depends largely on 
his mental and physical well-being, proper 



"Spring Meet" in May is well attended and 
much enthusiasm prevails among the pupils, 
teachers and parents. 

Department of Hygiene. To further insure 
the physical welfare of the community and the 
best possible hygienic conditions in the schools, 
the services of several competent physicians 
are secured. It is the duty of this department 
to instruct and supervise those in charge of 
the hygiene and sanitation of school buildings, 
to enforce the exclusion of contagious diseases 
from the schools, and to require from every 
child and teacher a certificate of vaccination. 



116 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Its activities cover a much broader field in the 
medical inspection of pupils. Through these 
examinations it has been found that many chil- 
dren, who were thought slow or even dull, were 
suffering from physical defects such as poor 
eyesight, poor hearing, or adenoids. A careful 
examination of the pupils' teeth proved a reve- 
lation to many parents, who were unaware of 
any defects. In most cases, they gave their 
immediate attention to the matter, and those 
who could not afford to pay a dentist were 
given gratuitous treatment. 

Department of Attendance. There is a law 
in the State of Louisiana compelling children 
between the ages of eight and fourteen to 
attend school. In order to enforce this law, 
the School Board of New Orleans has ap- 
pointed officers whose duty it is to see that this 
law is carried out and to investigate cases of 
truancy. If the conditions do not improve> 
the children are brought before the Juvenile 
Court. 

Francis T. Nicholls Industrial School. A 
movement for industrial or vocational educa- 
tion has spread over the entire country and 
attracted attention in New Orleans. The aim 
is to offer to persons whose educational oppor- 
tunities are limited one, two, or three years of 
training in some trade or industry. The trained 
worker always commands a higher salary than 
the raw recruit. Those, who have finished 
courses at a trade or industrial school, are 
fitted to earn a livelihood in one field or an- 



other. The Francis T. Nicholls Industrial 
School for Girls, occupying a handsome build- 
ing similar to the new high schools, has been 
opened to girls over fourteen years of age, who 
have completed the sixth grade of the element- 
ary course or its equivalent. Girls above the 
age of seventeen, who have not completed the 
sixth grade, may be admitted upon the ap- 
proval of the Superintendent. The courses 
offered are dressmaking, home economics, gar- 
ment making, millinery, fine laundering, art 
needle work, design making, Commercial 
Arithmetic, and English. The school has 
proved so popular that other courses will be 
added as soon as the need arises and provision 
can be made for them. Many girls, who either 
had no aptitude for or time to devote to higher 
intellectual culture, have been equipped with 
the means of making their way in the world, 
where year after year greater skill is exacted 
in every occupation. 

Delgado Central Trade School for Boys. 
Isaac Delgado bequeathed to the Public 
Schools of New Orleans a fund of a million 
dollars for a trade school for boys, which as 
nearly as possible, must be centrally located. 
This school is now being erected, but a depart- 
ment of Educational Research has been estab- 
lished to furnish the School Board with ac- 
curate data concerning the industries, trades, 
and commercial activities of New Orleans, so 
that the school, when opened, may best meet 
the needs of the community. 



SECTION 4. TULANE UNIVERSITY AND LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. 



Medical College of Louisiana. The history 
of Tulane University dates back to the founda- 
tion of the Medical College of Louisiana in 
1834. This College was chartered the following 
year, and in 1836 issued the first degree in 
medicine and science ever conferred in the 
southwest. Some of the most famous doctors 
in the country have added prestige to the in- 
stitution by holding chairs in the different 
branches. 

University of Louisiana, 1845. The Consti- 
tution of 1845 provided for the establishment 
of a university in New Orleans, embracing the 
Medical College, to which were to be added 
law and academic departments. The law 



department then, as now, gave instruction in 
common and in civil law, with more stress on 
the latter. As the civil law of Louisiana differs 
so widely from that of other states, few stu- 
dents are drawn from these sources. The 
academic department ceased all instruction in 
1859 and was not reopened until after the 
restoration of civil government in Louisiana. 
During the years of 1863, 1864 and 1865 (war 
times), the University held no sessions. 
Through the strenuous efforts of a new board 
of administrators, the academic department 
was reopened in 1878 and sixty students ma- 
triculated. The following year the Legislature 
recognized the University of Louisiana in its 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



117 



three departments — medical, law, and aca- 
demic, and pledged state aid to the amount of 
$10,000 annually. Such was the foundation on 
which Tulane University was built. 

Paul Tulane. Louis Tulane, father of Paul 
Tulane, was a Frenchman who had emigrated 
to San Domingo with his brother-in-law, a 
wealthy planter and slaveholder. The broth- 
er-in-law's entire family was exterminated 
during the insurrection of the slaves, but Louis 
Tulane and his wife managed to escape in an 
open boat to the United States. They settled 
in Cherry Valley, near Princeton, New Jersey, 
and there Paul Tulane spent his boyhood. A 
cousin from France, touring the United States 
for his health, took the youth as "traveling 



erty he then possessed in New Orleans to the 
education of the white youth of Louisiana. A 
board of administrators selected from the 
most prominent men of the city was chosen to 
execute the trust. In all, Tulane donated one 
million and fifty thousand dollars to the fund, 
which he intended to increase, but, as he died 
without a will, this intention was never carried 
out. 

Tulane University, 1884. Tulane had not 
specified what should be done with the fund 
beyond that it should be devoted to the educa- 
tion of the white youth of Louisiana; so the ad- 
ministrators decided to establish an institution 
of higher learning. They entered into an agree- 
ment with the State by which the University of 




GIBSON HALL, TULANE CAMPUS. 



companion." Much of the traveling, in those 
days, was done by steamboat, and the two 
descended the Mississippi to New Orleans, 
which so charmed Tulane that he returned 
a few years later to make it his place of resi- 
dence. Establishing here a business for the 
sale of general supplies to planters and country 
merchants, he amassed a fortune. His chari- 
ties were numerous, though so unostentatious 
as rarely to come to public notice. In 1873, he 
returned to New Jersey, where he died. Paul 
Tulane never forgot the city where most of his 
wealth had been accumulated; his generosity 
to it in the cause of education amply proved his 
devotion. In 1881, he donated all the prop-i 



Louisiana, with all its property, would become 
a part of the new institution, thenceforth to 
be known as Tulane University of Louisiana. 
The $10,000 annually contributed by the state 
was to be withheld, but the property belonging 
to the University was to be free from taxation, 
in return for which the right of appointing to 
a scholarship was reserved to each senator and 
representative in the state. Colonel William 
Preston Johnston, a man of scholarly attain- 
ments and upright character, then president of 
the Louisiana State University at Baton 
Eouge, was selected as the first president of 
^Tulane University. 



118 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Courses Offered. At present, the University 
conrprises the College of Medicine, with the 
schools of medicine, of pharmacy, of dentistry, 
of hygiene and tropical medicine, of post- 
graduate medicine; the Department of Law, 
with the school of Louisiana Law and Common 
Law; the College of Arts and Sciences; the 
College of Technology, with schools of mechan- 
ical and electrical engineering, of civil and 
sanitary engineering, and chemical engi- 
neering, of architecture and architectural engi- 
neering. The College of Commerce offers a 
business course. 



ing erected on the campus of Tulane University. 
Here, the first two years' instruction in medi- 
cine is given the students. The buildings of 
the former University of Louisiana became too 
crowded for the growing institution, which was 
removed to the present spacious grounds in St. 
( Jharles Avenue, facing the pleasant prospect of 
Audubon Park. The cornerstone of the main 
building, known as Gibson Hall, was laid in 
1894. Since then, many handsome and well- 
equipped structures have been added and form 
an imposing group on the campus. Many of 
them are donations of generous patrons of edu- 




NEWCOMB COLLEGE. 



Location. The University at first occupied 
the buildings of the University of Louisiana, 
which it had absorbed. Sufficient funds were 
given by Mrs. Ida Richardson to erect and 
equip a modern building as a memorial to her 
husband, who had long been connected with the 
medical department. The building was erected 
in 1904, facing Canal Street, in the square be- 
tween Villere and Robertson, and until 1908 was 
known as the Richardson Memorial Medical 
School. In that year, however, the building 
was sold to the Hutchinson Fund and the name 
"Richardson Memorial" was given to a build- 



cation; such is the Tilton Memorial Library, 
the repository of the very valuable collection 
of books belonging to the University. 

Government. The student body of Tulane 
University is self-governed. Each of the four 
classes (freshman, sophomore, junior and 
senior) of the academic department select a 
president, vice-president and secretary. These 
twelve students from the Academic Board of 
which the president of the senior class is ex- 
officio president. This court of honor is 
entrusted with nearly all matters of discipline, 
except neglect of work or absence. Its judg- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



119 



ments are referred to the president of the Uni- 
versity, who approves or sends them on to the 
faculty. That body seldom does more than 
ask the Board to reconsider a decision. This 
system, inculcating a certain amount of moral 
responsibility in each individual, has worked 
with admirable success. 

Sophie Newcomb. Mrs. Josephine Louise 
Newcomh, wishing to perpetuate the memory of 
her daughter, Sophie, founded a college for 
young women. The original fund of $100,000 
was entrusted to the administrators of the 
Tulane fund. The Sophie Newcomh Memorial 
College was opened in 1887 as a department of 
Tulane University. The courses offered are 
regular collegiate work, the high standard of 
which ranks Newcomb among the best colleges 
in the country. One of the most noteworthy 
features of the institution is the School of Art, 
which covers a four years course, supplemented 
by post-graduate work. Drawing, music, paint- 
ing, modeling, art needle work, tapestry, jew- 
elry, and pottery are some of the subjects com- 
prised in this course. Newcomb pottery is far- 
famed for its beauty of outline and design. The 
exhibit of the Newcomb School of Art received 
the highest award at the Panama Exposition 
held in San Francisco in 1915. 

Education Work of the Jesuits. Although 
the Jesuits had been in Louisiana since the 
•earliest colonial days, they did not undertake 
educational work until after it became a state 
of the Union. The first college established 
within the present limits of the state by this 
illustrious teaching order was at Grand Coteau 
in 1835. Twelve years later, upon the invita- 




LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. 



tion of Archbishop Blanc, they opened the 
College of the Immaculate Conception, now 
Jesuits High School, on the corner of Baronne 
and Common Streets in New Orleans. 
Adjoining the college building is one of the 
handsomest churches in the city. 

Loyola University. In 1904, the Jesuit 
Fathers opened a select school in the uptown 
section of the city, in St. Charles Avenue 
opposite Audubon Park. To this was soon 
added a collegiate course. The ambition of 
the Society for a Catholic University in the 
State was realized in 1912, when the Legis- 
lature granted them full powers to confer, 
"degrees in the arts and sciences and all the 
learned professions, such as are granted by 
other universities in the United States." 
Marquette Hall, a magnificent building in the 
Tudor Gothic style of architecture, has been 
erected and equipped with up-to-date appa- 
ratus for laboratory work. 

The buildings are grouped in the form of 
an open quadrangle. Marquette Hall to the 
rear, Thomas Hall on the downtown side, and 
a church built on a magnificent plan occupies 
the thrid side of the quadrangle. The Univer- 
sity now offers, besides an academic course, a 
pre-medical course, a law course, a course in 
pharmacy, and a course in dentistry. 

Seismic Observatory. The most interesting 
instrument in the excellent scientific equipment 
of the University is the seismograph, one of the 
tew in the country. The seismograph is an ap- 
paratus, which records vibrations of the earth. 
A cylinder, revolving by clockwork, moves a 
piece of carbonized paper on which two deli- 
cately poised needles 
trace parallel lines. 
These needles move 
from side to side with 
any vibration, causing 
the lines to be wavy. 
The instrument is so 
sensitive to the slight- 
est vibration that it 
will he affected by an 
earthquake anywhere in 
the world. A special 
observatory, donated by 
\V. B. Burke in memory 
of his son, houses this 
mechanical w o n d e r . 
The seismograph is pro- 



120 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



tected from atmospheric disturbances by the 
double walls of the observatory and by a special 
little room of glass within the larger room. The 
instrument does not rest upon or touch any part 
of the building, but is supported by an inde- 
pendent concrete column extending eight feet 
under ground. The Jesuits own the principal 



seismic observatories in the United States, and 
they have been asked to co-operate with the 
government in the compilation of seismic data. 
This university has also the equally wonderful 
and better known apparatus, the wireless 
telegraph. 



SECTION 5. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



Convents. Several Catholic religious orders 
conduct splendid schools for girls. The Ursu- 
lines, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, and the 
Dominicans have been qualified by the Legis- 
lature to confer the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 

The Ursulines, having been forced to 
abandon their historic buildings in the lower 
part of the city because the site was needed for 
a new levee, have erected a very imposing 
structure in State Street. 

The Ladies of the Sacred Heart have an 
Academy in St. Charles Avenue, just above 
Napoleon Avenue. This order was founded in 
Trance in the beginning of the nineteenth cer 
tury and, for over a hundred years, has success- 
fully been devoted to the education of young 
ladies; their schools, established on all conti- 
nents, have gained for them world-wide 
renown as cultural educators and moral in- 
structors. The aim of their education has 
always been to mould the character and to 
infuse into their pupils that exquisite culture 
which is the mark of true refinement. Before 
the convent in St. Charles Avenue was estab- 
lished, there was one in Dumaine Street. This 
older institution has lately been abandoned 
owing to the shifting of population. 

Parochial Schools. The Catholic Church 
conducts a well organized system of parochial 
schools. Each parish church has a school ad- 
joining under the direction of the parish priest 
and, in most cases, taught by Nuns. Uniform 
text-books are used throughout the city and 



the classes are graded according to public 
school standards. The unity and efficiency of 
the system is further increased by a general 
supervision of all the Catholic Parochial 
Schools in New Orleans. Music, art, and, of 
course, religious instruction are given special 
attention. A graduate of Newcomb College, 
eminent for her art work, has been appointed 
supervisor of the art department. The teachers 
are thoroughly prepared for the work and the 
buildings are well equipped. The school ad- 
joining the Sacred Heart Church is considered 
one of the most up-to-date in the city. Stere- 
opticons and even moving picture machines are 
utilized to illustrate moral stories, history, and 
practical science lessons, importing vivid and 
realistic sense-impressions to the child, thereby 
stimulating interest. 

Preparatory Schools. There are several, 
well-known preparatory schools. The Chris- 
tian Brothers' College, renowned for thorough- 
ness, the Holy Cross College, and Bugby 
Academy are very successful in pre-collegiate 
work. 

Soule College. — Since 1856, this institution 
has been successfully carried on, excepting 
during the years of the Civil War, when the 
president, Colonel Soule, entered the Confed- 
erate Army. It ranks very high as a business 
college and its graduates have little difficulty 
in securing positions. In 1884, it became 
co-educational to meet the demands of women 
for commercial education. 



SECTION 6. INSTITUTIONS FOR THE COLORED. 



Public Schools. The city conducts ele- 
mentary public schools and a public high school 
for the children of the negro race similar to 
those provided for the white children. 



Xavier College. This institution, richly 
endowed by Mother Drexel of Philadelphia, 
occupies the site of the old Southern Univer- 
sity in Magazine Street. It is a well-equipped 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



121 



school, modern in all details and offers every 
advantage in way of educational oppor- 
tunities. 

Straight University. The American Mis- 
sionary Association was instrumental in 
establishing this school in 1869, which was 
named for Seymour Straight, a produce 
merchant of New Orleans, and one of its 
earliest benefactors. At present, the Univer- 



sity occupies large buildings with ample 
grounds in Canal Street. 

New Orleans University. In 1869, the 
Freedman's Bureau established the Union 
Normal Scbool, which in 1873 the Legislature 
chartered as the New Orleans LTniversity. The 
affairs of the institution are controlled by a 
board of trustees. Two-thirds of the members 
must belong to the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. 



SECTION 7. LIBRARIES. 



Library Societies. According to tradition, 
as early as 1801, the first public library of 
New Orleans was established; but there are no 
authentic records to attest its existence at so 
early a date. In 1805, the Legislature 
chartered the New Orleans Library Society, a 
joint stock company with an unlimited number 
of shares at $25 each and the privilege of 
conducting a lottery. The finances of the 
Society did not prosper and its ultimate fate 
is uncertain. A similar attempt was made in 
1824, when the Touro Free Library Society of 
New Orleans was incorporated. Its term of 
usefulness was short, for it lasted only six 
years. 

The State Library. There is no record of 
any public library for eight years after the dis- 
solution of the Touro Free Library Society; 
but in 1838, the State Library was established 
by act of the Legislature, chiefly for the benefit 
of the legislators, but open to all citizens. From 
a beginning of 3,000 volumes, it increased to 
50,028 in 1861. These had been removed to 
Baton Rouge with the change of capital, con- 
sequently many very valuable books and docu- 
ments were destroyed when the State House was 
burned during the war. The volumes that were 
left were brought to New Orleans and are now 
deposited in the new Court House. 

"Commercial Library." This owed its ex- 
istence to private enterprise, but in 1842, 
through the generosity of B. F. French, it was 
turned over to the public. 

The Lyceum or Public School Library. The 
Second Municipality was by far the most pro- 
gressive in the educational line. In 1845, a 



library in connection with the schools of the 
district was established through the efforts 
of Mr. Shaw, superintendent of the public 
schools, Samuel J. Peters, and others. A 
monthly subscription of 25 cents for pupils and 
a yearly subscription of $5 for others, gave 
free access to the library, while a fee of $10 
entitled the subscriber to life ownership. The 
Lyceum contained about 7,500 volumes and it 
is interesting to note that a few of them still 
bearing the mark of the Lyceum are to be 
found on the shelves of the present Public 
Library. The books were placed in the newly 
founded and unfinished municipal hall, the 
same whose classic Grecian architecture now 
adorns Lafayette Square. 

The Fisk Library. About 1849, Mr. Alvarez 
Fisk bought the "Commercial Library" from 
Mr. French to carry out the designs of his de- 
ceased brother for the establishment of a 
public library in New Orleans. The collection 
then consisted of about 6,000 volumes, which, 
with a building in Customhouse Street, he 
offered to the city. It was used successively 
by the Mechanics' Institute, the Louisiana 
University, and Tulane until 1897; then it was 
that the Lyceum and the Fisk Library were 
consolidated to form the "Fisk Free and 
Public Library." The City Council has an- 
nually made an appropriation for its main- 
tenance. This library continued to be the 
chief public library of the city and was fre- 
quently changed from one building to another 
until the city received a donation from Mr. 
Carnegie with which the present handsome 
structure was erected. 



122 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 8. THE NEW ORLEANS PUBLIC LIBRARY. 



Buildings. The library building was erected 

in 1908 at a cost somewhat over $260,000. 
Mr. Carnegie's gift amounted to $375,000, 
but as the Fisk Library was to be embodied 
in the new, the city refused to accept 
the sum unless the condition of naming it 
"Carnegie" be removed. The structure and 
grounds occupy the length of the block on St. 
Charles Avenue, between Lee Circle and 
Calliope Street. The building is of gray stone 
and a portico supported by graceful Corinthian 
columns extends beyond the main entrance. A 
terrace, several feet in height, gives the 
building an imposing setting. The interior of 
the main building is like one great hall sup- 
ported by massive marble pillars. A domed 
skylight and many large windows keep it well 
lighted. Almost one half of this huge room is 
occupied by the Juvenile Department, secluded 
by a low partition running from side to side. 
Here, the long low tables with their rows of 
dark shaded electric reading lamps, the small 
chairs, the drinking fountains, row upon row 
of interesting books, the carefully arranged 
collection of pictures show that everything is 
planned for the comfort, entertainment, and 
instruction of the little folks. On the other 
side of the hall is the reference room, containing 
a large collection of valuable hooks which are 




NEW OKLK.VNS PUBLIC LIBHAKV. 



not allowed to circulate, but which can lie taken 

from the shelves and read at leisure. . Just 
beyond the reference room is the magazine 
reading room, where one can peruse at will the 
latest copy of 339 different magazines — fashion 
books, literary periodicals, religious publica- 
tions, and magazines of science, art, invention, 
agriculture, education, published in all parts 
of the English-speaking world and some in 
foreign languages. Behind the main building 
and connected to it by a wide vestibule is the 
annex where the books for circulation are kept. 
Three stories are stacked with well-filled 
shelves, having only narrow passageways be- 
tween. The books are catalogued by means of 
the Library of Congress cards. Each book is 
listed at least twice — first on a card bearing the 
title of the book followed by the author's name, 
and this is filed alphabetically, according to the 
name of the book; secondly, on a card bearing 
first the author's name, then the title of the 
hook, and this is filed according to the alpha- 
betical order of the author's name. All the 
books are numbered and the cards in the catalog 
hear the numbers of the books. 

Branch Libraries. In connection with the 
Xew Orleans Public Library there are five 
branch libraries, namely, the Royal Branch, 
Algiers Branch, Canal Branch, the Napoleon 
Avenue Branch, and the 
Dryades Street Branch 
for negroes. 

System of Circulation. 

The use of these libraries 
is absolutely free to all, 
and any one holding a 
card may borrow books 
from the circulating de- 
partment. All that is 
necessary to obtain a card 
is to have some one sign a 
guarantee that he would 
be liable for any fines in- 
curred by the borrower. 
Fines are incurred if the 
book is kept longer than 
the time allowed, if the 
book is damaged, or if it is 
lost. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



123 



Howard Memorial Library. Just on the 
other side of Lee Circle from the New Orleans 
Public Library is a much smaller, but hand- 
some structure. This, too, is a library, » 
memorial to Charles T. Howard, erected by his 
daughter, Mrs. Parrot, in 1888. The plans were 
drawn by Richardson, and were the last from 
the hand of that famous architect. The original 
cost of the building was $115,000, and Mrs. 
Parrot's generosity led her to bestow an 
endowment of $200,000 upon the library. The 
interior consists of a fine hall containing 
stacks, and a circular, domed reading room. 
Among the valuable articles owned by the 
library are copies of the original editions of 
the works of Audubon and an unrivaled collec- 
tion of Louisiana maps. 

The Confederate Memorial Hall. Adjoin- 
ing the Howard Library is the Confederate 
Memorial Hall built in 1891 by Frank T. How- 
ard. The Hall with its invaluable collections 
is in charge of the Louisiana Historical Asso- 
ciation. Many and varied are the relics 
gathered here — flags tattered and stained by 
time and battle, swords of gallant officers, the 
uniforms of some fallen hero, a lock of hair, the 
cord from a bat — sad but soul-stirring memen- 
toes of those heroes, who went forth gladly to 
give their lives for their beloved South. 

The Louisiana State Museum. The 
Louisiana State Museum, wbicb now occupies 
the two historic buildings on either side of the 



St. Louis Cathedral, was created by act of the 
Legislature in 1906. The Cabildo contains 
valuable and interesting historical collections, 
including original documents and letters; 
maps, especially of New Orleans dating from 
the earliest days of the city; General Jackson's 
battle flag and other relics of the battle of New 
Orleans; slave-sale certificates, Confederate 
money, and mementoes of the Civil War; 
pictures of scenes connected with the history 
of the state, portraits of the governors of the 
state and many other historical personages; 
and collections of china, silverware, furniture, 
and trinkets, representing different periods in 
the history of the State and city. The old 
Presbytery is devoted to the natural history 
and commercial history of the State. The chief 
agricultural products — cotton, sugar cane, rice 
and corn, the lumber and mineral products, and 
a wonderful collection of native birds and ani- 
mals are scientifically classified and attract- 
ively exhibited. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Colonial Education; Section 2, Early 
Years of American Rule; Section 3, Public School 
System; Section 4, Tulane University and Loyola 
University; Section 5, Private Schools and Colleges; 
Section 6, Institutions for the Colored; Section 7, 
Libraries; Section 8, New Orleans Public Library. 

REFERENCES: Louisiana Studies, Fortier; Standard 
History of New Orleans, Rightor; History of Educa- 
tion in Louisiana, Fay; Annual Report of the Super- 
intendent of Public Schools; Annual Report of the 
New Orleans Public Library. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Literature of New Orleans. 



SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION. 



Meaning. The word "literature" is derived 
from the Latin word "litera," which means a 
letter, written records, or writings. By litera- 
ture is meant "the best expression of the best 
thought reduced to writing." As people's 
emotions and thoughts are influenced by their 
individual character, mode of life, and social 
conditions, so is literature, which is the written 
record of these emotions and thoughts; hence 
literature is an important factor in understand- 
ing a people. Literature requires settled con- 
ditions in order to flourish. The North Amer- 
ican Indian had no literature because his life 
was one continuous struggle for food and life; 
he had no time to record his emotions, thoughts, 
and deeds. The earliest form of literature is the 
writing of the priests of the ancient tribes; their 
life was quiet; they led the people spiritually, 
in return for which, they were exempt from 



fighting; this condition of their life enabled 
them to give permanent expression to their reli- 
gious beliefs and the prowess of the warriors. 
Literature is therefore the product of peaceful 
times, though struggles and turmoils of differ- 
ent kinds are often taken for the theme. 

Two Kinds of Literature in Louisiana. For 
a full century, French was the principal 
language in Louisiana. The Spanish domina- 
tion had no effect on the language of the 
colony. Even after the American occupation 
French held first place for about forty years. 
The sons of wealthy Creole families of ante- 
bellum days were sent to France for their 
higher education; thus the French language 
was retained in its purity. Even to-day, the 
French language is generally well spoken in 
New Orleans. From this has resulted a 
French as well as an English Literature. 



SECTION 2. FRENCH LITERATURE. 



First Literary Effort. Literature grows 
slowly in new countries. In the early days of 
the colony, the hard conditions of life 
repressed any literature aspirations. "Le 
Moniteur," the first newspaper, was not 
founded until 1794. Copies of it are to be 
found in the archives of the city. The first 
literary work produced in New Orleans, in fact 
in Louisiana, was an epic, which appeared in 
1779, during the time of the Spanish control; 
it was written in French by Julien Poydras, a 
native of Brittany, then living in New Orleans. 
The poem celebrated Galvez's capture of Baton 
Rouge and was entitled ' ' La Prise du Morne du 
Baton Rouge par Monseigneur de Galvez." 
The work is devoid of literary merit, but is 
worthy of notice as the first attempt at a 



literary work in Louisiana. Julien Poydras 's 
fame rests on his philanthropy and public- 
spirited citizenship. He came to New Orleans 
penniless; by peddling along the River, he 
gradually amassed enough money to become a 
merchant and planter, and thus acquired the 
fortune, which he spent so freely in assisting 
less fortunate in Louisiana. Poydras Street 
received its name from the fact that Julien 
Poydras's New Orleans home was located 
there. 

Drama. The second literary work was a 
tragedy, "Poucha Houmma," by Le Blanc de 
Villeneufve, published in 1814. The subject is 
a Houmma Indian chief's sacrifice of his life 
so as to save that of his son. Cula-Be, the son 
of Chief Poucha Houmma, had escaped from 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



125 



the Choctaw village after killing a Choctaw. 
At the feast of the "Young Wheat," the Choc- 
taws sent to the Hoummas to demand the mur- 
derer. The old chief sent his son away and 
gave himself up instead to the Choctaws. 
Villeneufve endeavors through his work to 
prove to the world that the Indians were not 
destitute of human feeling. L. Placide Canonge 
in 1S49 wrote a one-act comedy, "Qui Perd 
Gagne" (Who loses gains). Dr. Alfred Mercier 
and Dr. C. Delery also wrote some plays. 

Poetry. A number of fine poems were 
written at different times during the last cen- 
tury. In 1846, Mr. Felix de Courmont pub- 
lished a poetical journal called "Le Taena- 
rion." Dr. Alfred Mercier, be- 
sides his drama, wrote some 
poetry; "La Rose de Smyrne" 
and "Erato" are ranked among 
his best. Dr. Chas. Testut pub- 
lished in 1849 a volume of verse 
called "Les Echos." The works 
of the French poets do not 
enjoy the wide recognition they 
deserve. 

Prose. Charles Gayarre 's first 
work was in French, "Essai His- 
torique sur la Louisiane" (His- 
torical Essay in Louisiana). 
This work appeared in 1830. 
Charles Gayarre is one of the 
best known names in Louisiana, 
as a lawyer, legislator, and historian. He was 
born in New Orleans, January 9, 1805, of French 
and Spanish parentage; his mother was the 
youngest daughter of Etienne de Bore. He 
was graduated at the age of twenty from the 
College of Orleans and then went to Phila- 
delphia, where he studied law with a well- 
known jurist, Mr. Rawle. He was elected in 
1835 to the United States Senate, but his poor 
health prevented him taking his seat. He then 
spent eight years in France and returned with 
his health much improved. While abroad, he 




began the work on which his fame rests, his 
"Histoire de la Louisiane," the first two vol- 
umes of which appeared in 1846 and '47; in 
1854, he completed the volume on the Spanish 
Domination, and during the Civil War that on 
the American Domination. After the Civil 
War, appeared a comedy, "Dr. Bluff," "Philip 
II. of Spain," "Fernando de Lemos or Truth 
and Fiction," and its sequel, "Aubert Dubayet 
or the Two Sister Republics." He contributed 
many articles to prominent magazines and 
reviews. He helped to reorganize the Louisi- 
ana Historical Society and became its president. 
Gayarre has given a valuable account of his 
life as a child on his grandfather's (Etienne de 
Bore) plantation in "A Louisi- 
ana Plantation Under the Old 
Regime." He held many political 
positions, such as member of the 
General Assembly and Secretary 
of State. The last years of the 
distinguished scholar's life were 
rendered painful by ill health and 
pecuniary embarrassments. 
Death claimed Charles Gayarre 
on February 11, 1895. 

Besides his poems, Dr. Testut 
wrote two novels, "Le Vieux 
Salomon" and "Les Filles de 
Monte Cristo.'' Dr. Alfred 
Mercier wrote ' ' L e F o u d e 
Palerme," "La Fille du Pretre," 
and "L 'Habitation St. Ybars"; the latter is 
generally considered his best; it gives a vivid 
and accurate account of life on a large sugar 
plantation before the War. 

French Literary Society. The "Athenee 
Louisianais" is a society for the preservation 
of the French language in Louisiana. It is 
affiliated with the Alliance Francaise of Paris 
and the United States. The society publishes 
a journal, "Les Compterendus d 1 'Athenee 
Louisianais," which contains many of the best 
literary efforts of its members. 



CHARLES GAYARRE 



SECTION 3. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 



DeBow's Review. In January, 1846, 
appeared the first number of the "Commercial 
Review of New Orleans"; the Review was 
edited by James D. B. DeBow, who had 



removed in 1845 from Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, to New Orleans. Its original title is now 
scarcely known, it being familiarly spoken of 
as DeBow's Review. The Review became one 



126 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



of the foremost journals of the United States in 
the years before the War; it is a rich source 
of historical material about the Old South. De 
Bow, the editor, was a pioneer in the study of 
political economy, which he taught at the 
University of Louisiana, then located in New 
Orleans. Besides contributing to the Review 
and the Encyclopedia Britannica, DeBow pub- 
lished "Encyclopedia of Trade and Commerce 
of the United States" in two volumes, and 
various other works. The Review was pub- 
lished regularly until 1864, when it was discon- 
tinued; after the war, the office was removed to 
Nashville, Tennessee, where the journal was 
published for two years, 1866- '68, and then 
permanently stopped. The Review's influence 
on the development of the city commercially 
and educationally was great; its pages are rich 
with the best thought not only of New Orleans, 
but of the entire South. 

Poetry. Many New Orleanians have written 
poetry, though few have attained distinction 
as poets. Before the War, the two best writers 
of verse were not native New Orleanians, but 
citizens by adoption. Joseph Brennan, born 
1829, was an Irish patriot exiled from Ireland 
because of his connection with the revolu- 
tionary movements in 1848. He lived in New 
Orleans for the last ten years of his life, and 
for three years was connected with the 
"Delta." About his best poem is "The Exile 
To His Wife"; it is a pathetic account of his 
loneliness in a foreign land and his longing for 
his wife, for her presence, her love, and tender- 
ness; it is rich in beauty of thought and 
musical rhythm. Richard Henry Wilde was 
also a native of Ireland; he was born in Dublin 
in 1789; he came to Maryland as a child and 
then lived in Augusta, Georgia, where, after 
studying law, he was sent to Congress. In 1843, 
Wilde removed to New Orleans, where he died 
four years later. His two best known poems 
are "Ode to Ease" and "The Lament of a 
Captive; or, My Life is Like the Summer 
Rose." Both poems sound a note of sad lone- 
liness; the last is an exquisite lyric. 

Colonel William Preston Johnston, a 
former president of Tulane University, pub- 
lished a volume of poems, "My Garden Walk," 
in 1895. 

There have been three noted poetesses, Mrs. 
Mollie E. Moore-Davis, Mrs. Mary Ashley 
Townsend, and Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson. 



Mrs. Davis was the wife of Major Thomas 
Edward Davis; she was born in Alabama in 
1852, but, when a small child, her parents 
moved to Texas, where she lived until her mar- 
riage caused her to reside in New Orleans. 
Many of her early poems were gathered into a 
volume entitled "Minding the Gap and Other 
Poems." "Pere Dagobert" and "Wanga" 
are among her principal later poems. There is 
an appealing note of truth and sympathy and 
sweetness in Mrs. Davis' writing; her thoughts 
are fresh and original. Mrs. Davis was also a 
novelist. 

Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend was born and 
spent her early life in New York. After her 
marriage in 1856, New Orleans became her 
home. Mrs. Townsend has published three 
volumes of verse and a collection of sonnets; 
she usually wrote under the name of 
"Xariffa." "Creed" contains beautiful 
thoughts beautifully expressed. "A Georgia 
Volunteer" is a sympathetic musing over the 
grave of an unknown Confederate soldier. "A 
Woman's Wish" and "The Captain's Story" 
are among other well-known poems. 

Mrs. Eliza J. Poitevent Nicholson was 
born in Mississippi in 1849, but removed to 
New Orleans after her marriage. Mrs. Nichol- 
son was the owner of the former "Picayune" 
newspaper. "Pearl Rivers" was the name 
under which she wrote. Mrs. Nicholson died in 
1896. Besides many unpublished poems and 
poems published . in newspapers, there is a 
volume of "Lyrics." The lovely poem, "Sing- 
ing Heart," is in this volume. Mrs. Nicholson 
generally wrote of the things of nature; she 
had a deep understanding and love of nature's 
workings. 

Drama. No great dramatic work has been 
produced. Judge Gayarre and W. W. Howe, 
and Mr. E. C. Wharton wrote a few plays, but 
achieved no distinction thereby. 

History. Judge Francis X. Martin was the 
first historian of Louisiana. Judge Martin pub- 
lished his history in 1827; he recounts the his- 
tory of Louisiana from the beginning of its 
settlement to the close of the year 1815. Judge 
Martin was also an eminent jurist. (See Chap- 
ter X., Professions— Trades.) 

Judge Gayarre wrote a romantic History of 
Louisiana. Other historical writings of Judge 
Gayarre are: "A Historical Sketch of the Two 
Lafittes," "A Louisiana Sugar Plantation of 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



127 



the Old Regime," "The New Orleans Bench 
and Bar in 1823," "Literature in Louisiana," 
and "The Creoles of History and the Creoles of 
Romance"; the last was a refutation of George 
W. Cable's misrepresentation of the Louisiana 
Creoles. 

Professor Alcee Fortier devoted Ins life to 
the study of Louisiana history, people, and their 
language. Professor Fortier was born in St. 
James Parish, June 5, 1856; he was the son of 
Florent Fortier and Edwige Aime, the daughter 
of Valcour Aime. He received his early educa- 
tion under private tutors, in the schools of New 
Orleans, and at the University of Virginia. He 
then studied law for two years, but his father's 
financial reverses compelled him to give it up 
and accept a clerkship in a bank. Shortly after- 
wards, he became a teacher in the 
city high school; later, he was 
made principal of the preparatory 
department of the University of 
Louisiana. In 1880, he was made 
Professor of French, at the Uni- 
versity. The following year, he 
married Miss Marie Lanauze of 
New Orleans. From the pro- 
fessorship of French, he was 
changed some years later, to that 
of Romance languages. In 191. ">, 
he became Dean of the Graduate 
Department of the University. 
He died at his home in Audubon 
Street, February 14, 1914. Pro- 
fessor Fortier served for ten 
years on the State Board of Edu- 
cation; he was president of the 
Civil Service Commission and of 
the Board of Curators of the State Museum. It 
was largely through his exertions that the 
Louisiana Historical Society was kept from per- 
ishing; he served as its president for many 
years. The French government honored him 
by appointing him an officer of public instruc- 
tion and presenting him with the cross of the 
Legion of Honor. Professor Fortier was presi- 
dent of the following organizations: Athenee 
Louisianais, Modern Language Association of 
America, American Folk Lore Society, and 
Federation Alliance Franchise of United States 
and Canada, and the Public School Alliance of 
New Orleans. 

Besides his labors in the classroom, in clubs 
and societies, Professor Fortier did much 




\i.i ii. i on nu; 



writing, both in French and English. "Bits of 
Folk Lore" appeared in 1888, followed succes- 
sively by "Sept Grands Auteurs du Dixneu- 
vieme Siecle" (Seven Great Authors of the 
Nineteenth Century), "Histoire de la Litera- 
ture Francaise" (History of French Litera- 
ture), "Louisiana Studies," "Louisiana Folk 
Tales," "Voyage en Europe," "Precis de 
1 'Histoire de France" (Abstract of History of 
France), "History of Louisiana," "History of 
Mexico"; editor of "Encyclopedia of Louisi- 
ana," and of many French texts. Professor 
Fortier contributed to many magazines in the 
United States and in France. 

Judge Alexander Walker wrote in 1860 the 
"Life of Andrew Jackson and Battle of New 
Orleans"; his son, Mr. Norman McF. Walker, 
published in the Magazine of 
American History, September, 
1883, an interesting paper en- 
titled "The Geographical Nomen- 
clature of Louisiana." Colonel 
William Preston Johnston wrote 
the life of his father, "Life of 
Albeit Sidney Johnston." An- 
other work dealing with the Civil 
War is Colonel Alfred Roman's 
"Military Operations of General 
Beauregard." W. W. Howe pub- 
lished the ''Municipal History of 
New Orleans" in the Johns Hop- 
kins University Studies in His- 
torical and Political Science. 
There are many other books of a 
similar character. 

The Novel. Charles Gayarre 
wrote two so-called novels, "Fer- 
nando de Lemos" and "Aubert Dubayet," 
Charles Dimitry, the son of the able educator, 
wrote, "The House on Balfour Street." Dr. 
W. H. Holcombe published "Mystery of New 
Orleans in 1890." 

One of the most noted names in the litera- 
ture of New Orleans is that of Lafcadio Hearn. 
Hearn was born in 1850 on the island of Santa 
Maura, one of the Ionian group; his mother was 
a Greek and his father an English army sur- 
geon; lie was educated partly in England, in 
Ireland, and in France. Hearn came to the 
United States after his father's death, making 
his residence in Cincinnati; here, he learned the 
printer's trade, then became a travelling cor- 
respondent of a Cincinnati paper; he spent a 



128 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



vacation in the South and, unahle to cast off 
the spell of the Southland, removed to New 
Orleans. It was in New Orleans, most of his 
literary work was done; he wrote at times for 
the Times-Democrat. His first book was "Stray 
Leaves from Strange Literature." "Chinese 
Ghosts" relates legends of China. "Chita" is 
a local story based on the terrible storm that 
destroyed Last Island. Later Mr. Hearn re- 
moved to Japan, where his death occurred. 
Lafcadio Hearn 's writing is characterized by 
its brilliance and vivid coloring. 

George W. Cable may be claimed as a 
writer of New Orleans, even though he no 
longer resides in the city. George W. Cable 
was born in New Orleans in 1844. After serv- 
ing in the Civil "War, he became a civil engineer, 
but ill health forced him to give up his profes- 
sion. Cable wrote for the Picayune and in 
1869 became one of its editors. Scribner's 
Magazine published his "Old Creole Days"; 
the success of this book decided him to adopt 
literature as a profession. After a lecture 
tour with Clemens (Mark Twain) through the 
Northern States, he removed to New England. 
George W. Cable has also written "The Gran- 
dissimes," "Dr. Sevier," "The Creoles of Lou- 
isiana," and "The Silent South." His por- 
trayal of the Creoles has sometimes been faulty. 
One of Mr. Cables ablest works is "History of 
New Orleans and Its Present Condition," 
written for the United States census of 1880; it 
is a rich source of information about New 
Orleans. His last work is "Lovers of Lou- 
isiana." Mr. Cable has much power as a 
descriptive writer, delighting his readers with 
exquisite word-paintings. 

Besides her poems, Mrs. Mary E. M. Davis 
wrote several charming novels, "In War Times 
at La Rose Blanche," "An Elephant's Track," 
"The Queen's Garden," "The Price of 
Silence," " Keren-Happuch, " clever accounts of 
life and scenes in New Orleans. 

Mrs. Ruth McEnery Stuart was born in 
Avoyelles Parish, the daughter of James and 



Mary McEnery; she was educated in New Or- 
leans. Mrs. Stuart is the widow of Alfred 0. 
Stuart, a cotton planter, to whom she was mar- 
ried in 1879. Mrs. Stuart began writing in 1888; 
her first book was "The Golden Wedding," a 
portrayal of negro character; this was followed 
by "Christmas Gifts," a story of slave times; 
"Carlotta's Intended," which deals with Dago 
life; "In Simpkinsville," "The Gentleman of 
the Plush Rocker," "George Washington 
Jones," and "A Christmas Gift That Went 
A-Begging. ' ' Mrs. Stuart also did clever mag- 
azine writing. 

Miss Grace King is among the foremost 
writers of New Orleans. Knowing intimately 
the Creole life of New Orleans, Miss King has 
generally devoted her books to the portrayal of 
the character and manners of the Creoles, in 
which the best critics agree that she has en- 
tirely succeeded. Miss Grace Elizabeth King 
was born in New Orleans, November 29, 1859; 
her father, William Woodsen King, was a prom- 
inent lawyer in ante-bellum days. Miss King 
passed her childhood in the midst of the Creole 
quarter of the city and on her father's planta- 
tion in St. Martin Parish. She received her 
education in the schools of the city and from 
private tutors. Miss King early spoke French 
and Spanish fluently and was thus enabled to 
easily study the history of the Creoles from 
original documents. Her first literary work 
was done for the New Princeton Review, which 
article she later developed into her first novel, 
"Monsier Motte" (1888). "Tales of Time and 
Place," and "Earthlings" followed. "New Or- 
leans, the Place and the People," then followed; 
this is one of Miss King's most delightful 
books; it is written in an easy, charming 
manner, replete with vivid descriptions and 
interesting details, and reveals the Creole char- 
acter at its best. Other works are ' ' Jean Baptiste 
Lemoyne, Founder of New Orleans," "Balcony 
Stories," "De Soto and His Men in the Land of 
Florida," and "Pleasant Ways of St. Medard." 
Miss King wrote a school history of Louisiana, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



129 



in collaboration with Mr. Ficklin. Miss King 
has received world-wide recognition of her 
work. 

Mrs. Cecilia Viets Jamison is a writer of 
beautiful stories for children. Mrs. Jamison is 
a native of Canada, but New Orleans became her 
home after her marriage in 1878 to Samuel 
Jamison, a well-known lawyer of this city. 
Among Mrs. Jamison's most popular books are 
"Lady Jane," "Toinette's Philip," "Seraph," 
"Thistledown," and "The Penhallow Family." 
Mrs. Jamison writes for such magazines as 
Appleton, Harper, and St. Nicholas. 

Mr. Thos. McCaleb has written a novel, 
"Anthouy Melgrave," which met with a cordial 
reception on its appearance in 1892. 



Miss Fannie Heaslip Lea (Mrs. Hamilton 
Pope Agee) is among the latest recruits to the 
literary ranks. Miss Lea has written principally 
for magazines. Two of her novels are "Quick- 
sands" and "Chloe Malone." Miss Lea has 
just begun her literary career. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction: Meaning, Two Kinds of 
Literature in Louisiana; Section 2, French Litera- 
ture: First Literary Effort, Drama, Poetry, Prose, 
French Literary Society; Section 3, English Litera- 
ture; DeBow's Review, Poetry, Drama, History, 
Novel. 

REFERENCES: Fortier, Louisiana Studies; Fortier, Ency- 
clopedia of Louisiana; McCaleb, The Louisiana 
Book; J. E. Clarke, Songs of the South; Literary 
reviews of current magazines and newspapers. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



People — Customs. 



SECTION 1. PEOPLE. 



Composition of Population. The population 

of New Orleans, like that of other large Amer- 
ican cities, is cosmopolitan, the result of its 
people's foreign parentage and of foreign im- 
migration. It must he borne in mind that the 
people of the United States are not native to 
the country; their ancestors, following in the 
wake of Columbus, pushed their way across the 
seas and assumed control of the Americas as 
their forefathers had of Europe. 

According to the United States census of 
1910, the population of New Orleans was 
339,075, consisting of Creoles, Americans, 
negroes, and foreigners; the foreign element 
was then slightly more than 7 per cent of the 
population, and included representatives of 
every nation of Europe and of several countries 
of Asia and of Central and South America. This 
percentage compares favorably with such cities 
as New York, in which the foreign element is 27 
per cent of the entire population, Chicago 33 
per cent and St. Louis 16 per cent. It is much 
smaller than that of Boston, where the foreign 
element is 38 per cent of the entire popu- 
lation. 

Creoles. The Creoles are the descendants 
of the French and Spanish settlers of Louisiana. 
When Louisiana passed under the American 
flag, the Americans built up a quarter for them- 
selves above the Terre Commune. This Terre 
Commune is now Canal Street and thus marks 
the division between the old city and the new, 
and between the Creoles and the Americans. 
Below Canal Street is the French or Creole 
quarter and above Canal Street the American 
district; the line is not as strictly drawn now 
as in former times; many Creole families now 
live in the American section and there are 
numerous American residents north of Canal 
(downtown). The Creoles have many charac- 
teristics of the French and Spanish people, tem- 
pered, however, by the different conditions of 
their life in America. They are quick-tempered, 



care-free, sociable, gay, possess the power of 
enjoying life, and are generally religious; they 
are kindly in their intercourse and possesses a 
] (leasing charm of manner. The Creoles differ 
in appearance from the other inhabitants of 
the city; their physique is slight, but muscular 
and strong, and their movements light and 
graceful; they have olive complexions, dark 
eyes and hair. The Creoles, as a rule, speak 
French and English. 

Americans "Americans" in New Orleans 
generally means the people who are not 
descendants of the French and Spanish settlers. 
The appellation, "American," was given by the 
Creoles to the English-speaking settlers, who, 
from the time of the Revolutionary War, came 
at intervals to Louisiana. This name has clung 
to them ever since. These people rapidly ob- 
tained control of the commerce of the city and 
made their quarter, the Faubourg Ste. Marie, 
(the First District), the business and political 
center of New Orleans. These Americans, un- 
like the Creoles, have no distinctive physical 
characteristics, except that generally, their 
build is larger. Their temperament is the same 
as that of the average American; having 
become acclimated, the long summers do not 
cause them to lose their energy as frequently 
happens to their brothers from northern 
States; they adjust their mode of living to suit 
the conditions of the place. Though the "Amer- 
icans" are a happy people, yet they are not 
as fond of gaiety as the Creoles; they generally 
prefer home pleasures to social affairs. 

Latin Americans. The Latin Americans 
come from the West Indies, Mexico, Central 
and South America; they are descended from 
the Spanish settlers of these countries and have 
the same character and appearance as the 
people of Spain. Though not very numerous 
heretofore, revolution in Mexico is occasioning 
the number of Mexican immigrants to increase 
rapidly. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



131 



Europeans. Every country of Europe is 
represented in New Orleans and in all classes, 
occupations, and sections of the city. Among 
the foreigners, the "Italians" are the most 
numerous; they are found in the different walks 
of life from the humble, loud-voiced vendor, 
driving his cart of fruit along the streets and 
calling out the different varieties in English 
impossible to understand, to the wealthy fruit 
merchant, who is helping to develop the city's 
ocean commerce. The French are perfectly at 
home in the Creole part of the city, where they 
hear their native language spoken with but a 
slightly different accent. French opera is sung 
exclusively at the Opera House; a troupe of 
singers is brought from France for the winter 
season. The Irish are almost as numerous as 
the French. Irish immigration began in the 
early forties of the past century and has con- 
tinued almost uninterruptedly. Trade is the 
avocation in which they are most conspicuous. 
The English in New Orleans belong as a rule to 
a wealthier class than the other foreigners; 
they are largely engaged in foreign trade; like 
the Italians and Germans, they are scattered 
among the inhabitants of the city, not congre- 
gating more in one quarter than another. The 
Russians occupy sixth place on the list of 
foreigners in New Orleans; in the- main, they 
are Russian Jews, who have fled from persecu- 
tion in Russia; many are engaged in conducting 
little second-hand shops on Dryades Street, and 
in peddling. Besides these nationalities, there 



arc a few Austrians, Greeks, Swiss, Spaniards, 
Belgians, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, and 
Scotchmen. 

Asiatics, or Oriental nations, the Chinese, 
Japanese and Turks are more prominent in New 
Orleans, as is the case in other cities of the 
United States, where they have congregated in 
any numbers. The Chinese have established 
a quarter of their own in New Orleans; they are 
located on Tulane Avenue between South Ram- 
part and the Criminal Courl House. Here, they 
have small restaurants, junk and pawn shops, 
and laundries; they are experts in laundering, 
especially clothes requiring stiffening, and their 
little laundry places are found everywhere in 
the city. The Japanese, the most highly de- 
veloped people of the Mongolian race, operate 
many shops for the sale of Japanese ware and 
curios of all kinds; some of the more interesting 
of these little stores are in Royal Street, and, 
through them, may be obtained most delightful 
glimpses of the life in far-away Nippon. The 
swarthy Turk earns his livelihood in the Cres- 
cent City by peddling linens, embroideries, 
laces, and various products of Western 
Asia. 

Negroes. The negroes are the descendants 
of the slaves of ante-bellum days, who 
originally came from Africa. Schools and mis- 
sions, maintained for their betterment, are well 
attended and have accomplished good results. 
A kindly feeling exists between the white and 
"colored" races. 



SECTION 2. CUSTOMS. 



Carnival. Carnival is the season between 
Twelfth Night and Lent. It is the gayest season 
of the year in New Orleans, the climax being 
reached by the costly festivities of Mardi Gras, 
"fat Tuesday," the eve of Ash Wednesday. 
The name "Carnival" is derived from two 
Latin words "came," "flesh," and "vale," 
"farewell," hence " farewell to the flesh"; the 

pleasures of "carnival" "are a gay n,- 1 by to 

the flesh which is to be mortified during the 
penitential season of Lent. 

Carnival is of pagan origin. The Romans 
celebrated the feast of the Pastoral god, Lu- 
percus, on February 15th; goats were sacrificed 
and two youths clothed in goat skins ran 



through the streets hitting with leather thongs 
the persons they met. The celebration in modi- 
tied form was kept by the Christian Romans and 
has been continued to the present day. The 
custom spread from Rome to other places. New 
Orleans adopted the Carnival from Paris, but 
has improved upon it so greatly, that, today, 
her Carnival is the most noted in the world. The 
brilliant balls and gorgeous pageants of the last 
week of Carnival annually attract thousands of 
visitors to the hospitable metropolis of the 
Southland. 

The custom of having pageants reproducing 
scenes from history, literature, or art, by means 
of gorgeously decorated floats was introduced 



132 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



into New Orleans from Mobile. In 1831, an 
organization of Mobile known as the "Cow- 
bellions," held the first parade of the kind in 
America. The Mystic Krewe of Comus was the 
first to delight the populace of New Orleans by 
its appearance in the streets. In 1857, they 
presented scenes from Milton's "Paradise 
Lost" and then repaired to the old Varieties 
Theatre for the grand ball with which they 
entertained their more intimate friends. This 
merry god and his court annually parade in 
exquisitely artistic guise in the evening of 
Mardi Gras ; their ball later at the French Opera 
House is the climax and 
close of the brilliant social 
season. 

Rex first came to rule 
in 1872 for the benefit of 
the city's distinguished 
guest, the Grand Duke 
Alexis of Russia. Since 
then, the royal yacht, com- 
ing from over distant seas, 
bears the merry monarch 
and his court of dukes and 
peers of the realm, to the 
landing at the foot of 
Canal Street at noon of 
Monday, the eve of Mardi 
Gras. Rex's arrival is 
hailed by a prolonged 
salute of cannon and 
whistles from every craft 
in the harbor. A proces- 
sion, composed of the dig- 
nitaries of the city, the 
soldiers from Jackson 
Barracks, the crews of the 
visiting warships, the 
state militia, and part of 
the city police force, then escorts Rex to the 
City Hall. Here, the Mayor of New Orleans 
presents him with the keys of the city and he 
begins his frolicsome rule of thirty-six hours, 
during which time the air resounds with the 
royal anthem, "If Ever I Cease to Love." At 
noon on Mardi Gras, Rex parades in fanciful 
array through the principal streets of the city, 
pausing in front of the Pickwick or Boston 
Club's balcony in Canal Street, to salute the 
Queen of the Carnival and the members of her 
court and present Her Majesty with a bouquet 
in the carnival colors, purple, green, and gold. 




CARNIVAL PAGEANT IN CANAL STREET 



Mardi Gras night Rex entertains at a public 
ball at the carnival palace (the Athenaeum, 
corner of St. Charles Avenue and Clio Street) ; 
at midnight, Rex and his Queen, accompanied 
by the members of the court, visit Comus, at 
the French Opera House; the union of the two 
courts in the grand march following the arrival 
of the royal guests is one of the most gorgeous 
spectacles in the social life of the United States. 
The Thursday night before Mardi Gras wit- 
nesses the appearance of the Knights of Momus. 
This parade ■ inaugurates the Mardi Gras fes- 
tivities. Momus 's advent occurred in the same 
year as Rex, 1872, when 
he showed scenes from Sir 
Walter Scott's romance, 
"The Talisman." After 
the parade, Momus enter- 
tains at a ball at the 
French Opera House. 

The Mystic Krewe of 
Proteus made its first ap 7 
pearance in 1882, on 
Mardi Gras eve, in a 
parade illustrative of 
"The Dream of Egypt." 
Proteus seems not to limit 
the cost, so beautiful are 
his annual pageant and 
ball both in thought and 
execution. 

There are other or- 
ganizations that entertain 
at brilliant balls; among 
these, the more prominent 
are the Twelfth Night 
Revellers, Nereus, and the 
Atlanteans. A queen and 
attendant maids are 
chosen at all these balls 
and the beauty and rich attire of the court con- 
tribute to the splendor of the entertainment, 
which generally occurs at the French Opera 
House. 

One of the most important factors in arous- 
ing the Mardi Gras spirit is the secrecy and 
mystery enshrouding the great pageants; the 
public knows nothing about them until they see 
them appear in the streets. The expense of 
these parades is borne by members of the 
Mystic Krewes, and ranges from $20,000 to 
$30,000 and sometimes more for a single 
pageant. As soon as one Mardi Gras is over, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



133 



preparations begin for the next. A Mystic 
Krewe numbers about 250 members, about 100 
of whom are selected to participate in the dis- 
play. A design committee is elected at the 
organization's first meeting; a "captain" is 
appointed to be the head of this committee, and 
is given absolute power. The committeemen 
propose subjects taken from history, literature, 
mythology, etc.; five or six of these suggestions 
are given to the artist, who presents a few 
weeks later crayon sketches of them to the 
committee. After the committee makes its 
final selection, the artist designs in detail and 
in water colors each float and costume. The 
characters are then assigned the members and 
the costume cards are sent to the manufacturer ; 
the costumes are received by December and 
given to the court tailors for fitting and 
altering. The float Committee has charge of the 
construction of the floats. Carpenters, painters, 
papier-mache workers, and many others are 
kept busy building the floats in the "Float 
Den," which is located in an out-of-the-way 
place, such as the yard of an abandoned cotton- 
press. The ball at the Opera House is arranged 
by the "Ball Committee." When the appointed 
day for the parade arrives, preparations are 
begun in the afternoon, if the display is to be 
at night. The drivers, torch-bearers, and other 
attendants are well drilled. The maskers' cos- 
tumes are in readiness in some building near 
the Float Den; the members repair to this build- 
ing and don their costumes, placing their 
formal dress suits in the costume boxes; these 
boxes are later taken to the Opera House to be 
in readiness for the maskers at the close of the 
ball. About seven o'clock, the maskers line up 
and the roll is called. A police squad keeps 
the streets cleared for several squares about 
the den. The torch-bearers form in ranks and 
the floats, about twenty in number, are driven 
out. At the "Captain's" command, the mask- 
ers mount the floats, which parade through 
several of the principal thoroughfares of the 
city to the enjoyment of thousands of specta- 
tors. The floats are then taken away to their 
secret home. 

These pageants are not only exquisite and 
entertaining, but instructive as well. The sub- 
jects are worked out in a highly artistic manner, 
beautifully illustrating bits of the world's 
treasure house of fact and fable, as for instance, 
Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," "The Adven- 



tures of Telemachus," "Chaucer's Tales," and 
many others. 

McDonogh Day. One of the most prominent 
persons in the commercial and social world of 
New Orleans between the Transfer and 1850, 
was John McDonogh; first, social favorite, then 
melancholy recluse. John McDonogh was born 
in Baltimore in 1778, of Scotch parentage. A 
visit to New Orleans in 1800 revealed its com- 
mercial possibilities, and, in 1804, he took up 
his permanent residence here. His business 
flourished so well that, five years later, he 
opened a sumptuous house at the corner of 
Chartres and Toulouse Streets. At the Battle 
of New Orleans, he served as a member of Cap- 
tain Beale's company of rifles. The story is 
that, about this time, McDonogh fell in love 
with a Miss Johnson, whose parents had re- 
moved to New Orleans from Baltimore in 1814. 
Because of differences in religion, the young 
lady's parents refused their consent to her 
marriage with John McDonogh; a few years 
later. Miss Johnson became an Ursuline Nun. 
Thereupon, McDonogh closed his house in the 
iVieux Carre and repaired to his plantation 
across the river, now McDonoghville. As there 
were no steam ferries prior to 1835, McDonogh 
crossed the river daily in a skiff, continuing to 
do so after the ferries were operating. Because 
of this habit, many persons accused him of 
stinginess. Unaffected by the sarcasm, 
ridicule, and condemnation of his former 
admirers, McDonogh spent the remainder of his 
days in solitude, dealing out justice and charity 
to his employees and slaves, freeing many of 
li is slaves and providing for the future freedom 
of others, and all the time amassing a fortune. 
"And for what purpose?" every one asked. 
John McDonogh never said. It was not until 
his will was read after bis death in 1850, that 
his secret purpose was revealed, namely, to 
benefit by education the youth of New Orleans 
and Baltimore. The passing years have 
removed from his name the stigma of miser, 
and, today, we know him to have been honor- 
able, steadfast, kind and self-sacrificinii'. a 
patriotic citizen, and an upright Christian. 

The opening of the will of John McDonogh 
revealed to the public that he had left the bulk 
of his fortune to the cities of Baltimore and 
New Orleans for the education of their youth. 
All that John McDonogh asked in return for 
his gift, was that, once a year, the children of 



134 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



the city would strew flowers on his grave. As 
his remains were removed to Baltimore, the 
monument erected in his memory by the public 
school' children of the city, has been substituted 
for his grave. On the first Friday of May, dele- 
gations from every public school in New 
Orleans, gather in Lafayette Square, and mass 
beautiful flowers about McDonogh's monument, 
while singing the pretty McDonogh song. 
Owing to other benefactors of the public schools 
being honored on this day, the name of the day 
has been changed to Founders' Day, but upper- 
most in the minds and hearts of all is the name 



mum for all Saints' decoration, that several 
hundred persons are engaged in their culti- 
vation, principally for this festival. 

Thanksgiving Offering. Thanksgiving Day 
is celebrated in New Orleans much in the same 
way that it is in the more northerly state in 
which the custom originated. In addition to 
this, the children of the public schools bring 
a Thanksgiving offering to school on the eve 
of the holiday. This offering consists of any- 
thing from an onion and an Irish potato to a 
delicate pastry or jelly. After all the 
offerings have been collected, they are 




McDONOGH MONUMENT IN LAFAYETTE SQUARE 



of John McDonogh, the foremost of the public 
school benefactors. 

All-Saints'. All-Saints' Day is celebrated 
on the first of November; it is of Catholic origin, 
being the day on which the memory of all the 
saints is honored by the Catholic Church. All- 
Saints is now a state holiday. The cemeteries 
are beautifully decked with quantities of gor- 
geous flowers; tin- large, handsome chrysanthe- 
mums being the most used. All day, the cities 
of the dead are thronged with the living, whose 
presence and the lavish floral display give a 
festive air to the otherwise sad scenes. The day 
is prepared for months ahead of time by thrifty 
florists. So popular has become the chrysanthe- 



sorted and sent to the needy homes, orphan 
asylums, and homes for the aged in the district 
of the school. Thus do the more prosperous 
share with their poorer neighbors, and Thanks- 
giving morning sees all united in thanking God 
for His public and personal benefactions. 

St. Roch's. St. Koch's is one of the most 
interesting cemeteries in Xew Orleans; princi- 
pally because of its unusual origin. An epidemic 
broke out in the city in the year 1866- '67. 
Father Thevis, then pastor of the Catholic 
German parish in the rear of the Third District, 
made a vow that if none of his parishioners 
should succumb to the epidemic, he would with 
his own hands erect a chapel in thanksgiving. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



135 



The whole parish united in prayer to St. Koch. 
As the epidemic did not cause the death of any 
of his congregation, the old pastor built the 
chapel and called the place "Campo Santo," 
'♦Holy Field." The chapel is of beautiful 
Gothic architecture and is similar to the mor- 
tuary chapels found in Austria and Hungary. 
Over the altar is a statue of St. Roch, which 
represents him with his favorite dog that fed 
him when he lay suffering from the plague, in 
the forest near Bingen, Germany. St. Roch's 
became famed as a mir- 
acle-working shrine, at- 
tested to by the hundreds 
of votive tablets ex- 
pressive of the gratitude 
of the donors; these are 
placed on all sides of 
the altar, and m any 
candles are kept continu- 
ally burning before this 
altar. A little cemetery 
has grown up about the 
chapel; within the little 
edifice, the side tiers of 
vaults are reserved for the 
members of the societies 
of St. A n n e a n d St. 
Joseph; the holy founder 
lies buried in the crypt 
under the sanctuary. 
There are many legends 
connected with St. Roch's, 
such as, that it a young 

woman prayed in the chapel regularly every 
evening she would have a husband before the 
year would be out; another is that if a maid 
look into the well at St. Roch's, she would see 
reflected on its smooth surface the face of her 
future husband; of course, she must not look 
into the well when alone. 

Charivari. The charivari was among the 
distinctly odd customs of New Orleans. In 
mediaeval times in France, persons entering 
into a second marriage were given a "mocking 




serenade, produced by the heating of pans and 
kettles mingled with groans and hisses"; this 
peculiar serenade was called a "charivari." 
There have been numberless "charivaris,'.' but 
perhaps none have attained the celebrity of 
the one accorded the fair, young widow of Don 
Andres Almonaster y Rosas. Miss King relates 
in "New Orleans: The Place and the People," 
that for three days and three nights the crowd 
followed the fleeing couple, "up and down the 
city, to and fro across the river," until finally 
they made their escape 
from the city. 

July Fourteenth. 
Frenchmen's Pay is cele- 
brated annually on July 
fourteenth. It was July 
14, 1789, that the Paris 
mob. in whom oppression 
had aroused the spirit of 
revolution, attacked the 
Bastille, the state prison, 
for five hours. The huge 
stronghold withstood the 
attack, but the guard with- 
in forced De Launey, the 
captain, to surrender; lie 
did so, however, on the 
condition that no harm 
should be done. Seven 
prisoners, well deserving 
their fate, were the only 
ones found in the prison. 
Five officers and three 
men were killed by the populace. He Launey 
was murdered in the street and his head stuck 
on a pike. This began the Revolution in France, 
known as the "Reign of Terror," which over- 
threw the rule of the Bourbon kings, and was 
itself crushed only by the despotism of Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. The republican form of gov- 
ernment, different however, from that in the 
United States, finally obtained control in 
France. The French of to-day, thus celebrate 
July Fourteenth as their Independence Day. 



SECTION 3. WAR ACTIVITIES. 



War Savings. The Louisiana State Com- 
mittee on War Savings carried on a ceaseless, 
intensive and patriotic campaign to induce 



people to save and to serve the Government by 
the purchase of War Savings and Thrift 
Stamps. Up to December 1, 1918, the sales in 



136 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



the city of New Orleans exceeded in value 
$4,500,000, or more than $6.50 per capita. 

Liberty Loans. The success of the Liberty 
Loans is a credit to the city of New Orleans 
and to its people. In every instance "Over the 
Top" was realized by the determined spirit of 
a people who "never say die." The Fourth 
Liberty Loan called forth the genius of the 
Crescent City and the advertising campaign 
was the most thorough and systematic ever 
conducted in this section of the country; the 
longest street sign ever put up in the world 
was raised on Canal Street. 

Resume of New Orleans' War Finance 
Activities. 

First Liberty Loan $ 9,226,350 

Second Liberty Loan 15,248,900 

Third Liberty Loan 15,667,500 

Fourth Liberty Loan 30,800,000 

Fifth Victory Liberty Loan 22,000,000 

War Savings Stamps : 8,000,000 

War Camp Eecreation Fund 33,000 

First Eed Cross War Fund 672,250 

Second Eed Cross War Fund 1,265,789 

Christmas Membership Drive Eed 

Cross 85,000 

Young Women's Christian Associa- 
tion 165,000 

Y. M. C. A. Fund 116,000 

Total $103,279,789 

Foot-note: United War Workers Fund not 
yet compiled. 

Food Conservation. Food control and con- 
servation played an important part in winning 
the war. The Food Administrator for Louisi- 
ana, John M. Parker, helped the State to make 
a splendid record. It began with almost a 
hundred per cent, conservation pledge, and 



ended by reducing sugar consumption to 3.3 
pounds per capita, for all uses, one of the 
lowest marks set anywhere in this country. 

Sugar, rice, and cottonseed industries were 
organized and stabilized, grades and prices 
fixed, and the government aided in popularizing 
and disposing of Louisiana crops. The Louisi- 
ana food work was divided into a dozen depart- 
ments with deputy administrators in districts, 
parishes, and communities. Poster pictures, 
oratorical demonstration and other campaigns 
were conducted, and churches, schools, frater- 
nities and clubs, and men and women con- 
tributed splendid services. 

Red Cross. The American Bed Cross is the 
largest and most efficient organization for 
relief of suffering that the world has ever seen. 
Chapters of this organization were established 
in practically every city in the United States; 
the New Orleans Chapter, with branches, was 
formally organized December 1, 1916, and per- 
formed a splendid service in the great humani- 
tarian cause; it is arranging to continue its 
efficient work through departments for the 
study of Elementary Hygiene; through a Sani- 
tary Department; and a First Aid Department. 

The Junior Eed Cross, composed of pupils 
of all public, private and parochial schools, was 
as equally efficient in the duties entrusted to it. 
The children participated in the great war work 
of the American Eed Cross to an extent that 
won distinction for New Orleans in its wonder- 
ful record of 100 per cent, in war work. The 
Junior Eed Cross is permanent and will con- 
tinue all activities as outlined by the parent 
body. 

TOPICS: Section 1, People; Section 2, Customs; Section 
3, War Activities. 

REFERENCES: Guide to New Orleans, 18S4; Picayune 
Guide Book; Eliza Ripley, Social Life in Old New 
Orleans; Grace King, New Orleans — The Place and 
The People; Alc6e Fortier, Louisiana Studies. 



CHAPTER XV. 



City Government. 



SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION. 



The Well-Governed Home. "Ah! what a 
splendid home!" said the visitor, smiling ap- 
provingly. The house of which he spoke was 
very modest; bat let us approach it as did the 
appreciative visitor. The banquette was clean 
and in repair; the simple iron fence was well 
painted; within was a small garden, where 
lovely flowers blossomed unhampered by any 
rank growth of weeds. The borne sat in the 
midst of the garden and lawn and, like its sur- 
roundings, was in good condition, not in the 
least in need of repair; its cleanliness fairly 
sparkled. A peep into the interior of the home 
revealed every comfort and a few luxuries. 
Children's merry voices resounded about the 
premises. At the sound of the dinner bell, there 
was a flurry of movement and then the family 
gathered about the inviting board. At one end 
of the table, the smiling mother saw to the needs 
of each of the rosy-cheeked youngsters, amid a 
happy chatter about the doings of each one, dis- 
cussions of which were referred to the proud 
father at the other end of the table. Each had 
his report to make about that day's activities. 

What was it that made that home "splen- 
did," as the visitor said? GOVERNMENT. 
The father and mother were the head of the 
family. They saw that each member had his or 
her special task to accomplish, and that each 
one did his share and took up responsibility 
for the whole, inasmuch as each one would not 
do anything to cause disorder. No one would 
throw paper, fruit peelings, etc., about the 
premises, nor ruthlessly tear up the grass and 
flowers, nor jab holes in the pavement, nor 
scribble on the paint. 

What was the result? A fair home, the joy 
of the inmates and the admiration of the 
visitors. 

Need of Government in the City. If govern- 
ment is so necessary in the home for the main- 
tenance of order, securing of cooperation, and 



making progress, how much more necessary is 
it in a home of hundreds of thousands of people, 
a big city! And as the needs of the city are the 
vastly magnified needs of the family, so the 
tokens by which the visitor judges the family, 
are those, vastly magnified, by which he judges 
the city, namely, the appearance of the city, the 
spirit of the citizens (the members of the city 
family), and the work accomplished by the 
citizens. 

As the father and mother governed the 
family, so the persons chosen by the people of 
the city, govern the city ; and when, like the two 
parents of whom we have been speaking, they 
do their work well, the citizens are busy and 
contented, and make annually (everything is on 
such a bigger scale) reports about their wonder- 
ful work. 

Civic Interest — A Duty. Do you think the 
home we have been considering would be so 
splendid if all the members of the family were 
not interested in making and keeping it in such 
condition? Surely not. Suppose four-year-old 
Tommy decided to use a flower-bed as a garbage 
can, and threw all the banana peelings into it. 
Six-year-old Mary might happen by and care- 
fully remove it to its proper receptacle; but, 
while Mary would be so engaged, the task, 
that had been assigned to her, of gathering the 
violets for the dinner table, would be neglected. 
Some one else, trying to accomplish Mary's 
work, would leave his own undone. So, be- 
cause of poor Tommy's disorderly act the en- 
tire household arrangement would be somewhat 
upset. 

Now let us make the application to our huge 
family — our city. A couple of thousand Tom- 
mies unthinkingly throw peelings, paper wrap- 
pings, bits of old clothes, food, etc., in the 
streets, even in the beautiful squares and parks. 
A large number of workmen are kept employed 
cleaning up after these careless citizens; another 



138 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



set of men have to mount guard to protect the 
public grounds and prevent these thoughtless 
citizens from committing such disorderly acts. 
And all this labor and money spent on cleaning 
ii] > and preventing disorderly deeds could he 
used in improving the city, — if there were no 
disorderly Tommies. 

It is then the duty of each one to refrain 
from committing disorderly acts, and to lahor, 
each one according to his ability and position, 
to improve the city; to discover the needs of 
the city, and how to meet these needs; to take 
an interest in the government of the city, since 
it is all the voters of the city who choose the 
government and select the persons to do the 
governing of the city; to sec that the work of 
governing is assigned to responsible persons; 
to recognize and appre- 
ciate good governing, as 
well as condemn and 
punish bad governing. 

Charter of New Or- 
leans. New Orleans be- 
came a chartered city in 
1805, that is, she was 
then granted a charter 
by the Legislature of 
the Orleans Territory. 
The charter gave her 
the right to govern her- 
self in a special man- 
ner described therein. 
Every time the people 
of New Orleans have 
desired a change in the 
government, they have ' 
had to apply to the Slate Legislature for such 
permission; when it was to be a complete 
change, a new charter would be granted. 

Government of New Orleans, 1805-1912. Be- 
tween 1805 and 1912, the government was gen- 
erally "aldermanic." The city was governed 
by a mayor and aldermen; the number of alder- 
men varied under different charters. The 
mayor and aldermen formed the city council 
and made and enforced the laws and took 
charge of the city's finances. 

The last form of government in the city 
before 1911' was the "aldermanic." This form 
of government with the large number of coun- 
cilmen, was considered to be unsatisfactory, 
principally because it prevented the holding of 
any one in particular responsible for the gov- 




ernment's acts. A change was then agreed 
upon. 

Commission Plan of City Government. A 
form of government known as the Commission 
plan had become popular among medium-sized 
cities in the Mississippi Valley. It was started 
by Galveston, Texas, after the great storm of 
1900 and has since been adopted by more than 
four hundred cities. 

This plan provides for conducting the busi- 
ness of governing a city in the same manner as 
operating a large corporation. The advantage 
of this plan is that with so small a number it 
is easy to fix responsibility. A few men, usu- 
ally five, are elected by the people to make the 
laws and see to their execution, also. 

Commission Plan of Government in New 
Orleans, 1912. It was 
decided in 1912 to try 
this plan of government 
in New Orleans. There 
was much opposition. 
Many persons held that 
such a form of govern- 
ment was satisfactory 
in small cities, but 
would prove a failure in 
a city of the size of New 
( (rleans. However, a 
bill providing for a new 
charter giving New Or- 
leans the commission 
form of government, 
was introduced in the 
legislature in May, 1912, 
and was passed after 
amendment. The general opinion at present 
seems to be that the commission form has 
proved better than its predecessors. A new 
era of civic activity has certainly come to life 
since 1912. 

Political Divisions of New Orleans. New- 
Orleans is divided into seven municipal dis- 
tricts, corresponding to the growth of the city 
by the annexation of adjoining towns. Besides 
the municipal districts, there is the division of 
the city into wards; each of the seventeen wards 
is entitled to one representative in the General 
Assembly of Louisiana. The wards are sub- 
divided into precincts — police precincts and 
] lolling precincts; A police precinct is the dis- 
trict under the supervision of one police station. 
A polling precinct is a certain district within 



r i if: i ITV MALL. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 



139 



which there is a polling hooth, where the voters 
residing in that precinct must cast their votes. 

Community Civics. In the proper study of 
city government, the citizen not only learns 
how the government works but acquires an 
interest in helping to improve it. 

It is an ideal of every good citizen to leave 
the world a little better than he found it. 

Citizens have duties and responsibilities as 
well as rights and privileges. There are many 
problems facing those in authority, who live 
in a large community. A great deal of our 
comfort and well-being depends upon the gov- 
ernment, which is deeply concerned in the in- 
spection of milk, in screening the markets, in 
reducing fire risks, etc. 

Therefore, we shonld take an interest in 
knowing what is done to secure pure food, in 



which effort the United States government, the 
state, and the city co-operate. We should find 
out what the city and state do in the matter 
of inspection of factories where clothing is 
made in order to see that they are healthful 
and safe. 

New Orleans has a woman factory inspector 
to see that the laws in regard to women and 
children are properly observed. In order to 
protect the health of the citizens, the city makes 
laws regulating the way in which tenements 
shall be built with a view to securing proper 
air-space and ventilation. 

In addition to government agencies for 
the well-being of the people, kind and public- 
spirited citizens have formed organizations 
that help those who are sick or are unfor- 
tunate. 



SECTION 2. COMMISSION COUNCIL. 



Members of the Commission Council. The 
Commission Council is composed of five mem- 
bers; namely, the Mayor and four Commission- 
ers. Their duty is to make laws for the city 
and to see to their being carried out. The mem- 
bers of the Council must lie qualified electors 
of the City of New Orleans; they are elected at 
large, that is, all are voted for by all the 
electors of the city without any regard to dis- 
tricts; they serve for a term of four years. The 
Mayor receives an annual salary of $10,000, and 
each of the Commissioners, $6,000. 

Vacancies. When a vacancy occurs in the 
Commission Council, the Council must appoint 
a qualified person to serve for the unexpired 
portion of the term; during the vacancy, a 
quorum (a majority) of the whole Council exer- 
cises the powers of such officer. 

Meetings. The Commission Council meets 
on the first Tuesday evening of each month, 
and as often as is thought necessary. If the 
returns of an election are to be opened, the 
meeting must be held in daylight. Meetings of 
the Commission Council are open to the public. 
The Mayor, or in his absence, the acting Mayor, 
presides at the meetings; the Mayor cannot 
veto a measure, but either lie or two Commis- 
sion Councilmen must sign every resolution 
or ordinance passed by the Council, after 



which it must be recorded before going into 
effect. 

Publication. The Mayor must have all ordi- 
nances and resolutions of the Council published 
and the clerk of the Council must have all pro- 
ceedings of the Council published for the in- 
formation of the public. These publications 
must be in a daily newspaper of New Orleans, 
which shall have been in existence at least a 
year previous to the contract; a contract for 
publication must be given out at least every 
two years at public auction to the lowest bidder. 
The newspaper so contracting has to give 
security for the faithful performance of the 
work. 

Council Elections. Many important city offi- 
cials, such as the City Attorney, City Notary, 
Clerk of the Commission Council, Auditor of 
Public Accounts, City Engineer, City Chemist. 
Chief Engineer of the Fire Department, and 
others, are elected by a majority vote of the 
Commission Council, either at the first meet- 
ing of the Council or as soon thereafter as 
possible. 

Powers of the Commission Council. The 

entire powers and duties of government of the 
city are vested in the Commission Council. The 
Council has not only the power, but it is their 
duty, to preserve peace and good order in the 



140 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



city, and to that end may make and see to the 
execution of the laws, and provide for city im- 
provements. The Council must see that clean- 
liness and health are maintained in the city; 
that thoroughfares are kept open to traffic ; that 



there are efficient police and fire departments, 
and a good system of public lighting; that the 
education of the city's youth is properly pro- 
vided for by means of schools and libraries; 
that public works are maintained. 



SECTION 3. DEPARTMENTS. 



Distribution of Powers. The Mayor, because 
of his office, is Commissioner of the Department 
of Public Affairs. At the first regular meeting 
after the election, the Commission Council by 
a majority vote assigns one Commission Coun- 
cilman to each of the other four departments 
(public finances, safety, utilities, and property) 
to be Commissioner of that department. The 
Commissioner of the Department of Public 
Finances, because of his office, is. City Treasurer 
and serves as acting Mayor in the absence of 
the Mayor. 

Department of Public Affairs. The Mayor is 
the head of the city government and has super- 
vision of all parts of the city government. He 
sees to the execution of the laws of the city 
and state. He must sign all contracts entered 
into by the city and sign all bonds issued by 
the city. He is by virtue of his office a member 
of all city boards and commissions. He has 
charge of the seal of the city, which he affixes 
to all official acts. He has the power to admin- 
ister oaths. He represents the city in all legal 
matters. 

Department of Public Finances. This de- 
partment has charge of the city's moneys. Ac- 
counts must be kept of the receipts and ex- 
penditures of all public moneys. The Commis- 
sioner of this department is, in the absence of 
the Mayor, the acting Mayor. 

Department of Public' Safety. The Public 
Safety Department is charged, as its name tells, 
with the maintenance of public safety. For this 
purpose, there are maintained the police and 
fire departments, board of health and public 
charities. The fire department has charge of 



the inspection of premises, with a view to their 
being to a certain extent fire-proof, and main- 
tains an efficient force of firemen and engines 
to combat fires. The police department has a 
body of policemen whose duty it is to see that 
the laws are obeyed and that violators of the 
laws are brought to trial in court. The board of 
health has to see that sanitary conditions are 
maintained in the city. (See Chapter TV. 
Health Conditions.) 

Department of Public Utilities. This de- 
partment has charge of public utilities, such as 
street cars, telephones, gas, etc. The Commis- 
sioner of Public Utilities awards at public 
auction franchises, contracts, and grants to the 
highest or lowest bidder, according as the case 
may require. A franchise is a privilege granted 
by the city to an individual or corporation to 
operate a public utility under certain conditions 
for a sjDecified time. 

Department of Public Property. Streets and 
alleys, parks and playgrounds, public buildings, 
public baths, and other public property, except 
the Public Belt Railroad, are controlled by this 
department. The Commissioner of Public 
Property, with his assistants, has charge of the 
draining, paving, lighting, cleaning, and beauti- 
fying of the streets, parks, playgrounds, and 
other public jilaces; much of the work is given 
out in contracts; there are park commissions 
that have charge of the parks and different 
public squares and places. This department, 
however, sees directly to the cleaning and 
watering of the streets, removal of garbage, and 
street paving. (See Chapter XVI., The City 
Beautiful.) 



SECTION 4. CITY BOARDS. 



Commissioners of Civil Service. In order to 
have better service in departments, where it is 
necessary that the employees have a certain 



educational training, the employees in such de- 
partments have been placed under civil service. 
By being placed under civil service is meant 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



141 



that they are examined as to their qualifications 
necessary to hold the position, and after being 
permanently appointed cannot be removed from 
office without grave cause, until the term of the 
appointing officer shall have expired. Positions 
under civil service thus have a certain perma- 
nence, j ' 
The civil service is controlled by the Board 
of Commissioners of Civil Service. This board 
is composed of the Mayor and two Commission- 
ers selected by the Commission Council. Ap- 
plicants in order to become eligible to appoint- 
ment must make an average of at least seventy 
per cent; this eligibility expires on January 
thirty-first of each year. The first six months 
after an applicant is appointed is a period of 
probation; if he is not discharged during that 
time, he is entitled to hold the position until 
the expiration of the term of office of the ap- 
pointing officer. 

All Confederate veterans with good records 
are excused from any examination. 

Board of Directors of the Public Schools. 
The Board of Directors of the Public Schools 
of the Parish of Orleans consists of five mem- 
bers, who must be electors. In 1916, five mem- 
bers were elected ; the three receiving the high- 
est number of votes shall serve for four years 
and the two receiving the lowest number of 
votes shall serve for two years. After that 
each group shall serve for four years. By this 
regulation, the entire membership of the board 
will not be changed at the same time. The elec- 
tion of the members of the Board of Public 
School Directors must be non-partisan, that is, 
without regard to political parties. There must 
be a separate column on the ballot with the 
heading "Board of School Directors;" the 
names of the candidates are placed in alpha- 
betical order in this column. All the public 
schools of the Parish of Orleans and the man- 
agement, property thereof, course of study and 
grading thereof, including text books to be 
used therein, are under the control of this 
Board of Directors. 



The Board of Directors must elect a com- 
petent and experienced educator to be superin- 
tendent of the schools; this election must take 
place on July thirteenth of every fourth year 
after July thirteenth of the year 1913. The 
Board must also elect as many assistant super- 
intendents as may be necessary; there must be 
an attendance officer and such other officers, 
clerks, and assistants as may be necessary to 
properly conduct the public schools of the 
parish. 

The schools are supported by funds derived 
from the following sources: 

1. Receipts from levying of school tax on 
assessable property of the city. 

2. State appropriation, which is in propor- 
tion to the number of educable children. 

3. City poll taxes. 

4. Interest on daily balance in bank. 

5. Smith-Hughes Fund. 

Board of Commissioners of the Orleans 
Levee District. This board is composed of nine 
members possessing all the requisites of an elec- 
tor; seven members are appointed by the Gov- 
ernor of the State from the seven municipal dis- 
tricts of the city; the other two members are 
the Mayor and the Commissioner of Public 
Works, who are ex-officio members. The board 
has charge of the construction and repair, and 
is vested with the control and maintenance of 
all levees in the Orleans District. 

Board of Directors of Public Libraries. The 
public libraries are managed by a board of ten 
members. This board was originally appointed 
by the Mayor and City Council; vacancies, since 
occurring, are filled by the board itself. The 
members serve for life or until resignation. The 
Mayor is ex-officio a member and, on going out 
of office of the mayoralty, becomes a permanent 
member. The libraries are maintained by 
means of donations and special city appropria- 
tion; the city is under contract with Mr. Andrew 
Carnegie to appropriate annually for the sup- 
port of the libraries, an amount equal to at least 
ten per cent of Mr. Carnegie's gift, which was 
$375,000. 



SECTION 5. ELECTIONS. 



Elections. An election is a choice of officials 
or acceptance or rejection of laws by popular 
vote. The parish and municipal elections in 



New Orleans are held on the Tuesday following 
the first Monday of November, 1916, and every 
fourth year thereafter. 



142 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Electors. Electors are those persons whom 
the state permits to vote in elections. In 
Louisiana, electors are males over twenty-one 
years of age and having certain qualifications; 
namely, residential, educational or property, 
and poll tax qualifications. 

(1) Residential — An elector must be a resi- 
dent of the state for two years, of the parish 
one year, and of the precinct six months pre- 
ceding an election. Removal from a precinct, 
however, does not operate against an elector 
until six months thereafter. 

(2) Educational — An elector must be able 
to write his application for registration in 
English or in his own tongue, or, if prevented 
from so doing by a physical disability, the 
registration officer or deputy may write it at 
his dictation, under his oath attesting his dis- 
ability. 

(3) Property — The possession of property 
assessed at $300 and on which all taxes are paid, 
serves in place of the educational qualification. 

(4) Poll Tax — Electors between the ages 
of twenty-one and sixty years must pay a poll 
tax of a dollar a year, which tax is used to help 
support the public schools of the parish. In 
order for an elector to vote at an election, he 
must have paid his poll tax for the two years 
preceding the year in which he offers to vote. 
This tax must be paid on or before December 
31st of each year. 

Registration. No elector may vote in an 
election without first registering. There is a 
special registration office in the City Hall, where 
electors register; this office is closed to register- 
Lng for thirty days before an election. An elec- 
tor registers by going to the registration office 
and filling in or having filled, as the case may 
be, the registration blank; this blank, when 
filled out, is a statement of the elector's residen- 
tial and educational or property qualifications. 
When the elector has filled in the registration 
blank, the registration officer gives him a cer- 
tificate of registration; this certificate is similar 
to a check; it bears the elector's registration 
number and is attached to a stub, which remains 



in the book when the certificate is given to the 
elector. The registration officer compiles books 
for each polling precinct, containing the name, 
address, registration number, and qualifications 
of each elector in that precinct. These books 
are kept at the polling booths on election day 
for verification of the certificates presented by 
the electors. 

Ballot. The ballot is the official form for 
voting. The names of the candidates for office 
are arranged in parallel columns according to 
parties, each party has a column at the head of 
which is the party name and emblem. There is 
a space left by the parties and candidates' name 
for checking by the electors. 

In the case of a primary election, the names 
ave arranged on the ballot according to offices, 
as the ballot is a party ballot. 

Voting. The polling precincts are open from 
six o'clock in the morning until seven in the 
evening. During this time, an elector must cast 
his vote. He must present to the election com- 
missioners his certificate of registration and his 
poll tax receipts; should he have lost his poll 
tax receipts, he is still allowed to vote if his 
name is on the official list of poll tax payers, 
issued by the City Treasurer, copies of which 
list are kept at every polling booth. He is then 
given a ballot by the election commissioners. 
The elector casts the ballot in secret; he votes 
by checking the space after a party name, thus 
voting for all that party's nominees for office, 
or else he checks the space after each preferred 
candidate's name, checking not more than one 
name for each office; he then folds the ballot, the 
names inward, and drops it in the ballot box. 

Counting the Votes. The polling booth is 
closed at seven o'clock in the evening. The 
commissioners of election then compile lists of 
the number of votes awarded each candidate for 
office. These statements are sworn to, placed in 
sealed packages, and delivered to the Mayor or 
acting Mayor. The Mayor or acting Mayor 
opens in public on the Monday following the 
election these sealed packages and declares the 
result of the election. 



SECTION 6. TAXATION. 



Purpose. The people are taxed for the sup- 
port of the government, public education, and 
libraries, the operation of the sewerage and 



water plant, the maintenance of levees, and the 
payment of the city debt. 

Assessment. There is a board called the 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



143 



Board of Assessors, whose duty it is to assess 
all property, real and personal, within the 
limits of the city. To assess property is to 
place a certain value upon it. Property may 
not be assessed above its actual value. 

At present the assessment is lixed at 75% 
of its actual value. 

Rate of Tax. The city lias fixed a rate of 
18 1 /:: mills upon a 75% valuation of real and 
personal property, which is distributed as fol- 
lows: 6 ] -2 mills for city expense tax, 10 mills 
for the interest and redemption of the city 
bonds, and 2 mills for the payment of sewerage 
and drainage bonds. 



In addition, the School Board of the city of 

New Orleans, which coincides with the Parish 
of Orleans, levies a tax of 2% mills for the sup- 
port of the public schools. This rate will be 
applied to a 100% valuation of property. 

The city taxes are collected in July. Be- 
sides the city taxes, there are the state taxes 
for the support of the State and maintenance 
of the levees in the parish of Orleans; four mills 
on the actual cash valuation will be collected 
beginning with the year 1919 for defraying the 
expenses of the State; the levee tax for 1919 
has been fixed by the Orleans Levee Board at 
two mills on 100% valuation. This is a variable 
tax from year to vear. 



SECTION 7. COURTS. 



Necessity For Courts. In order to try per- 
sons accused of violating the city laws, such 
as speeding an automobile, being disorderly on 
the street and other offenses, three police courts 
have been formed for the City of New Orleans 
which are known as Recorders' Courts. There 
is also a Night Court which tries persons ar- 
rested at night in order to prevent their having 
to spend the night in jail if they are not guilty. 

Officers. Each such court has one judge 
called the Recorder, appointed by the Commis- 
sion Council at a salary not exceeding $2,500. 
He must be at least thirty-five years old and a 
resident of the city for five years prior to his 
election to office. The Council also appoints a 
clerk and the necessary assistant clerks. The 
Board of Police Commissioners details four 
policemen to each Recorder's Court to keep 
older and execute the orders and decrees of the 
Recorders. 

Control. These courts are under the control 
of the Commission Council. 

Appeals. Appeals may lie made from these 
courts to the Criminal District Court. 

Powers of the Recorders' Courts. All fines, 
penalties or forfeitures imposed by the Re- 
corders, must be collected by them and by them 
paid daily to the City Treasurer; they must 



give to the person paying the fine or penalty, a 
receipt stating the amount of the fine or pen- 
alty, the date, from whom collected, name of 
the person fined, and for what offense. The 
punishment imposed by the Recorders shall not 
exceed a fine of twenty-five dollars ($25.00) or 
thirty days imprisonment. 

City Criminal Courts. For offenses of a 
more serious nature there have been constituted 
the First and Second City Criminal Courts, 
which have authority or jurisdiction for trial 
without jury and the punishment of all offenses 
against the State where the penalty does not 
exceed six months' imprisonment or a fine of 
three hundred dollars. 

Above such cases the Criminal District 
Court has jurisdiction. 

First and Second City Courts. Two civil 
courts have been constituted in New Orleans to 
have authority over cases when the amount in 
dispute does not exceed one hundred dollars. 
One of these courts has three judges and is 
situated on the east bank of the Mississippi 
River; the other has authority over the Fifth 
District, which is Algiers, and has one judge 
only. 

Above such cases the Civil District Court 
has jurisdiction. 



144 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



SECTION 8. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE COMMISSION 
FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 



Initiative, Referendum, and Recall. The 
commission form of city government has three 
distinct features, namely, the "initiative," 
"referendum," and "recall." 

By the "initiative," the voters may origi- 
nate legislation; this is done by 30 per cent of 
qualified voters demanding of the Council the 
passage of a measure; should the Council not 
pass it, they must submit it to the vote of the 
electors, a majority of whom can pass it over 
the opposition of the Council. 

Ordinances, except for the immediate pre- 
servation of the public peace, health, or safety, 
do not go into effect before ten days following 
their final passage; by the "referendum," the 
qualified electors may within those ten days de- 
mand of the Council to repeal the ordinance or 
submit it to the vote of the qualified voters. 
Ordinances that are passed by the majority of 
the electors, may be repealed only by a majority 



vote of the electors. Special elections for pass- 
ing or repealing ordinances may not be held 
oftener than once in a period of six months, nor 
within ninety days of a general municipal 
election. 

The charter provides that "the Mayor and 
Commission Councilmen may be removed from 
office or recalled therefrom in the manner now 
or hereafter provided by the Constitution." 
The Constitution as originally written did not 
provide for the recall of officers, but an amend- 
ment establishing the recall was passed by the 
vote of the people November 3, 1914. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction; Section 2, Commission 
Council; Section 3, Departments; Section 4, City 
Boards; Section 5, Elections; Section 6, Taxation; 
Section 7, Courts; Section 8, Distinctive Features of 
the Commission Form of Government. 

REFERENCES: Charter of the City of New Orleans, 
1912; Constitution of the State of Louisiana. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



The City Beautiful. 



SECTION 1. CITY BUILDING. 



Conditions Governing the Location of 
Cities. In the early history of nations, cities 
were located where the best natural means of 
defense were offered. As the strength of their 
armies increased, natural means of defense 
were considered of secondary importance in 
the selection of a site. Commerce and indus- 
tries were developed during eras of peace. 
Consequently, cities grew and flourished where 
easy access by water and good harbors favored 
trade, where swift streams afforded power to 
run their mills, or where mineral deposits 
awaited the hand of man to convert them into 
wealth. The perfection of the railroad has 
largely removed dependence upon water com- 
munication: inland towns, far from navigable 
lakes or rivers, have sprung up as the distrib- 
uting points for great agricultural districts. 
One or more of these conditions has led to the 
establishment of American cities. The natural 
fortifications around Quebec made that city an 
early center of western civilization; New York, 
on the other hand, possessed peculiar commer- 
cial advantages; the New England cities were 
the outgrowth of manufacturers and most of 
the cities of the Rocky Mountain States owe 
their rise to the untold mineral wealth of the 
section and the construction of great railroads. 

City Building in Ancient Times. A 
woman, Queen Semiramis, had decided to con- 
struct upon the banks of the Euphrates River 
the greatest city in the world, and thus, for 
the first time known to history, a city, Babylon, 
was built in accordance with a definite plan. 

The Greeks, laboring for the attainment 
of knowledge and beauty, enjoyed the highest 
civilization of ancient times. The city of 
Athens, a city of exquisite beauty and long the 
western world's center of art and letters, was 
the noblest expression of their cultured civili- 
zation. 

Rome becoming by her military prowess the 
supreme power in the western world, drew 



to herself the best talent of the conquered 
peoples. Thus she was able to erect the mag- 
nificent temples and palaces that adorned her 
seven hills, and to construct the military roads, 
solid masonry bridges, and remarkable aque- 
ducts that displayed engineering skill of the 
highest order. 

Value of Permanency. The works of the 
Greeks and Romans in great part have de- 
fied the ravages of time and the elements; this 
is the result of the work of builders to whom 
permanency was as much an ideal as beauty. 
These people, to have left such wonderful- 
monuments attesting their existence as proud 
and powerful nations, must have been actuated 
by a tremendous civic spirit. 

Paris. The right building of modern cities, 
combining healthfulness, utility, and beauty, 
was first undertaken in France. In the early 
fifties, when Napoleon III. was emperor of 
France, Baron Haussmann and M. Alpliand, the 
city engineer, drew up a wonderful plan for 
renovating and embellishing Paris. Crooked, 
narrow streets were straightened and widened 
into magnificent boulevards; broad avenues, 
connecting open space with open space were 
laid out through densely populated districts; 
places, parks, and avenues were beautified with 
trees and masterpieces of art. Hence it has 
been said of Napoleon III. in regard to Paris 
that "he found it brick and left it marble." 

Garden Cities of England. The city plan- 
ning movement in England has developed 
garden cities. The most noted of these are 
Letchworth and Hempstead, whose sites were 
purchased by companies. Neat, attractive cot- 
tages or apartments, surrounded by gardens, 
are provided the working classes at nominal 
rent. The result in beauty, convenience, health, 
happiness, and efficiency have fully justified 
the experiment. 

City Planning in America. Few American 
cities have been built along any definite plan; 



146 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



they have grown up haphazard, according to 
the press of conditions or the whims of in- 
dividuals. Washington, which ranks as one 
of the most beautiful cities in the world, is a 
notable exception. When a site on the Potomac 
was selected for the national capital, President 
Washington, recognizing systematic planning 
to be necessary for growth, prosperity, and 
artistic development, employed Charles L 'En- 
fant, a young French engineer, to lay out the 
city. The growth of Washington continued 
in accordance with L 'Enfant 's plan. The formal 
plan of rectangular blocks crossed by broad, 
diagonal thoroughfares, terminating at circles, 
civic centers, or open squares, is well adapted 
to a city so pre-eminently official and social. 

The architectural features of Washington's 
imposing buildings are enhanced by the radial 
avenues, affording numerous leafy vistas, as 
the parks and streets of the city on the Potomac 
are the greenest and shadiest in the world. 

Many American cities have drawn their 
inspiration in city planning from the beauty 
of the national capital. The Columbian Ex- 
position, held in Chicago in 1893, demonstrated 
the advantages of spacious approaches and 
proper grouping of well-designed buildings, 
and exerted a marked influence. Chicago 
began to form a definite idea of the "City 
Beautiful" and to evolve a comprehensive plan 
for civic embellishment. 

Cleveland, with characteristic enthusiasm, 
called upon the best talent to create for her a 



plan of utility and compelling beauty. The 
dominant feature in the renovation of Cleveland 
is the civic center. Along a broad thoroughfare 
are grouped the principal public buildings 
representative of the great functions of a city. 

Boston, like New Orleans, is a city with 
traditions. These she cherishes and embodies 
in her churches, her inns, her architecture. 
No towering skyscrapers loom up beside 
dark, tunnel-like alleys, or shut out the blessed 
sunlight and fresh air from more lowly neigh- 
bors. Boston further shows her belief in the 
salutary effect of nature's restoratives by her 
admirable system of public parks, and her re- 
gard for the value of beauty and recreation by 
developing and embellishing the water front 
along the Charles Eiver. 

Experts are now at work on a plan that 
will render New York City pre-eminent in 
civic beauty as she is now in size and wealth. 

Many other American cities are awaken- 
ing to a sense of their responsibility toward 
the citizen. There is a growing realization of 
the need not only of hygienic conditions and 
business facilities in cities, but, also, of beauty; 
for people need, not only good health and 
means of earning a livelihood, but, also, 
sources of right enjoyment and inspiration, 
if they are to accomplish great works. This 
beauty is attained by spacious and tastefully 
adorned streets and parks and by an architec- 
ture characteristic and suitable to the people 
and place. 



SECTION 2. BUILDING OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Original Plan of New Orleans. Bienville, 
having convinced the authorities of the ad- 
vantages of a town on the Mississippi River, 
sent de la Tour to plan the new city. Only a 
few huts built by voyageurs who had come 
down the Eiver occupied the site Bienville had 
chosen. The engineer cleared a strip along the 
River and with the help of some piquers, 
located the streets, dividing the town into rec- 
tangular squares. De la Tour's plan embraced 
the rectangle now bounded by Bienville, North 
Rampart, Barracks, and the River; it provided 
for an open square or Place d'Armes around 
which were to be grouped the parish church, 
school, and government building, and it divided 



each square into plots or building sites to 
be given to settlers on condition that they 
should enclose the property with palisades and 
open along the street a ditch to serve as a drain 
for river water in times of inundation; Bien- 
ville selected a site on the outskirts for his 
residence, which, when occupied by the Ursu- 
lines in 1727, was still "in the depth of the 
forest." 

Changes in the Shape of New Orleans. 
The city did not adhere in its growth to this 
rectangular plan. Owing to the greater height 
of land being along the river front and the 
boat landings all being there, the stream of 
settlement took that course also, and the rec- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



147 



tangle was expanded on either side into a cres- 
cent, hence the name, "Crescent City." Growth 
in population has caused further advance up 
and down the curving River, so that now the 
harbor resembles an elongated "S"; the city 
is now also expanding towards Lake Pont- 
chartrain, in fact reaches the Lake, between 
West End and Spanish Fort. 

Influence of Climate and Available Build- 
ing Material. Before long, the squares near- 
the Place d 'Amies were covered with rude 
habitations built of logs plastered with clay 
and thatched with palmettoes from the 
nearby swamp. Glass window panes were 
an unknown luxury in those days; even Bien- 
ville's house is described as having "the sashes 
covered with fine, thin linen which let in as 
much light as glass and more air." The prim- 
itive structures were gradually replaced by 
larger and better buildings of brick made 
from the abundant clay. Time hardened and 
strengthened this brick, and, as the framework 
and floors were of cypress, a wood unaffected 
by dampness, these buildings were remarkably 
durable. The first Ursuline convent, con- 
structed of brick and cypress in the time of 
Bienville, is the oldest building in the Missis- 
sippi Valley and is still in splendid condition. 
Brick houses became more prevalent, not only 
because of their durability, but also because 
they were much cooler than frame houses. 
Climatic conditions favored the adaptation of 
broad central halls, long galleries shielding 
from intense glare, and thick walls through 
which little heat could penetrate. 

Early French and Spanish Influence. New 
Orleans has an individuality, both charming 
and unique. The Vieux Carre, with its 
narrow streets and close rows of solid, somber 
houses with dormer windows and batten shut- 
ters, looks less a part of an American city than 
of some Old World town transplanted to this 
continent. One reason for the compactness of 
Old New Orleans was the need for defense 
against the Indians; and besides the early 
inhabitants brought with them ideas of French 
and Spanish cities, where the streets were made 
narrow to avoid the direct rays of the sun. 
Spanish architectural features predominate 
because most of the original French buildings 
were destroyed by the devastating fires of 1788 
and 1794. After that the tiled roofs, still a 
picturesque feature of the French quarter, came 



into use. The solid walls of adobe or brick, 
paved courtyards, ponderous doors, iron-barred 
windows, massive arched doorways, and 
wrought-iron balconies over-hanging the ban- 
quettes bespeak Spanish influence. On three 
sides of Jackson Square are the most imposing 
relics of that influence, namely, the old St. 
Louis Cathedral, Cabildo, and Presbytere facing 
the River, and the red brick Pontalba buildings 
to the sides of the Square. 

The courtyard, affording a cool secluded 
place for family rest or recreation, is one of 
the most attractive features of the section 
below Canal Street. Walled in by the great 
houses, these paved courts broaden out behind 
narrow entrances through which the passer-by 
may catch delightful glimpses of palms and 
ferns, old-fashioned parterres, and, occasion- 
ally, a graceful Spanish water jar or iron foun- 
tain. But the individuality of New Orleans is 
more strikingly emphasized by the second-story 
galleries extending over the banquettes from 
residences, shops, cafes, or old office buildings, 
offering generous shelter from sun and rain. 
There in the heart of the city, where every 
foot of ground bears its burden of masonry or 
timber, these galleries form hanging gardens, 
gay with feathery ferns and potted shrubs — ■ 
bright color against the dingy faces of old 
weatherworn piles. The houses built after the 
American occupation are modifications of 
French and Spanish styles. Brick and timber, 
easily obtained from the surrounding country, 
were the chief materials used in their con- 
struction. 

Building Ornamentation. Peculiarly char- 
acteristic of New Orleans architecture are the 
balustrades and fences of wrought-iron in 
elaborate and intricate patterns. Some show 
conventional designs, some flowers or trailing 
vines, but one very beautiful craftsmanship 
represents growing corn laden with ripened 
ears over which the flowering tassel waves with 
singular grace. Occasionally, as on the Pontalba 
buildings, there is a distinctive pattern formed 
by twining initials in the delicate traceries. The 
balustrades, so varied in design and beauty. 
are the work of mastercraftsmen, and are 
treasured as exquisite examples of a now 
almost lost art. The ingenuity and patient 
labor of these wondrous workers is strikingly 
proven by the fact that among the thousands 



148 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



of balustrades to be found in New Orleans, a 
duplicate is seldom seen. 

American Influence. After tbe cession of 
1803, tbe influx of Americans spread tbe city 
beyond its original limits and gradually 
transformed its architectural types. Some 
old American residences still standing in St. 
Charles Street and lower Carondelet, resemble 
those of the Vieux Carre, but with an open 
lawn or well kept garden instead of the closed 
courtyard. In the Garden District, still one of 
the most beautiful residential sections, fine 
homes with broad verandas supported by 
classic columns bespeak tbe influence of the 
Colonial style of the Georgian period. Large 
grounds enclosed by high iron fences, hedges, 
or walls complete the dignity and exclusive- 
ness of these homes. 

Modern Homes. To a city so accessible 
by rail and water, lack of material is no 
longer a stumbling block to diversity in build- 
ing. Vermont granite, Tennessee marble, steel 
from Pennsylvania, cypress, oak, walnut, gum, 
and many other useful or ornamental woods 
from Louisiana's forests, have contributed to 
the construction of the New Orleans of today. 
Brick, artistically finished and as durable as 
stone, no longer needs a coat of plaster, and 
is used effectively; it is especially pleasing as 
a background for the white pillars of the 
English colonial residences. The cosmopolitan 
population, as well as variety of material, 
caused a defection from the early types of ar- 
chitecture. Indeed, except for public build- 
ings, the architecture of the city at the pres- 
ent day, can hardly be said to possess a type. 
In architecture the practical need comes first, 
but parallel with this is the aesthetic need. Un- 
fortunately, both are frequently overlooked in 
the construction of modern dwellings, which 
too often, are mere shelters for human beings 
or are modelled after plans totally unsuited 
to the climate. New Orleans, so rich in tra- 
ditions, so indelibly marked by a distinctive 
type in her earlier architecture, a type, which, 
in itself, gives her individuality, and charm, 
should, like other cities with older associa- 
tions, seek to perpetuate and vivify this 
individuality, and increase this charm. Imita- 
tion of other cities is a mistake. She has her 
own ideals. Why should they be forgotten in 
her progress? 



One of the best examples of the Spanish 
colonial type is the old Newcomb pottery 
building. It is neither large nor pretentious, 
but with its small-paned windows and iron- 
railed balconies adheres closely to the style it 
represents, amply proving that an evolution of 
the native architecture is best suited to the 
natural environments. 

Buildings of Note. As building is the out- 
ward expression of the life of a community, 
some of the most important structures in New 
Orleans have been described in relation to some 
phase of human activity. For example, the 
Post Office, the Custom House, the New Court 
building, are representative structures, and 
find their places in other chapters. Many 
churches are fine examples of the different 
architectural schools. 

The City Hall was built in 1850 by Gallier 
after the plan of the temple of Minerva on the 
Athenian Acropolis. A broad flight of granite 
steps ascend to the entrance, high above the 
street. Massive Grecian columns support a lofty 
portico, the frieze of which is adorned by a bas- 
relief of Justice and figures emblematic of the 
commerce of the Mississippi Valley. 

In the business section of New Orleans are 
several skyscrapers — the Grunewald Hotel, 
Maison Blanche, Hibernia Bank Build- 
ing, and the Whitney-Central building — none 
however, rival the skyscrapers of New York. 
High buildings are unsuited to New Orleans, 
first, it is difficult to secure sufficiently firm 
foundations to bear their weight, and, second, 
the concentration of business within a small 
area congests traffic in streets which are 
scarcely wide enough to accommodate the usual 
procession of vehicles. 

Streets. With the exception of the section 
laid out by de la Tour, New Orleans has never 
been officially planned. Tbe streets have fol- 
lowed the line of least resistance or have been 
opened up by speculators who exploit the at- 
tractiveness of a particular section for im- 
mediate gain rather than for the permanent 
benefit to the community. The result has 
been great irregularity and lack of uniformity. 
In general, the streets running north and 
south conform in broad, sweeping curves to 
the direction of the River, and are crossed 
by other streets which converge or radiate, 
sometimes meeting to form triangles, some- 
times ending abruptly at intersections. These 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



149 



curves become less evident in streets at a 
distance from the River, and the blocks of 
the newly developed section toward the Lake 
are, for the most part, rectangular. Some 
New Orleans streets have attained more than 
local fame. The narrow streets of the Vieux 
Carre are noted for the pictnresqneness and 
Old World charm characteristic of that section. 
Canal Street, the broad thoroughfare 170 feet 
wide, which divides the city into two sec- 
tions — north and south — is the great center of 
the city's retail trade, the heart of its business 
life. St. Charles Avenue, a shady boulevard 
from Lee Circle to Carrollton Avenue, curves 
with the winding of the River and its width 
of 128 feet affords splendid views on either side 
of the residences in the midst of their lovely 
gardens. The neutral ground is beautified 
with a screen sward and crepe myrtles, olean- 
ders, palms, and oaks. The imposing build- 
ings of Tulane and Loyola Universities facing 
Audubon Park, enhance the avenue's natural 
attractiveness. Besides good architectural 
features, many structures are enhanced by 
their exceptionally advantageous locations, as, 
for instance, the New Orleans Public Library. 
It was indeed a fortunate occurrence that 
caused the library to be erected where St. 
Charles Avenue terminates at Lee Circle, thus 
giving it several splendid prospects. 

Present Movement in Behalf of Conserva- 
tion and Improvement. The cry to abolish by 
city ordinance the galleries and balconies which 
shelter the sidewalks in the business section is 
raised in the name of progress by those who 
would rob New Orleans of a distinctive charm 
and reconstruct her according to the stereo- 
typed pattern of some cities in the Middle 
West. Artists, architects, and travellers have 
praised these galleries. Edward Hungerford 
wrote of them: "The galleries of New Or- 
leans! They are perhaps the most typical 
of the outward expressions of a town whose 
personality is as distinct as that of Boston, 
( lharleston, or San Francisco. . . . She (New Or- 
leans) well knows the commercial value of her 
personality. There are newer cities and 
showier within the radius of a single night's 
ride upon a fast train. But whore one man 
comes to one of these, a dozen alight at the 
old French town by the bend of the yellow 
river." Concurrent with the movement for 
the retention of galleries is the still more 



recent agitation for conserving fine old 
trees, which having taken generations to 
attain maturity, cannot be repalced in a 
single day. 

The Association of Commerce under the 
guidance of a zealous and energetic president, 
and the women's clubs are actively furthering 
the cause of the "City Beautiful." The 
campaign, earnestly waged in behalf of more 
harmonious architecture and more pleasing 
streets, strenuously opposes towering sky- 
scrapers, and urges the abolition of violently 
assertive and glaring advertisements, unsightly 
shops in residential districts, and prosaic 
forests of poles with their burden of overhead 
wires. Street improvement has resulted in 
more spacious thoroughfares with ample pro- 
vision for neutral grounds and banquettes, al 
lowing free circulation of air; better pave- 
ment and drainage; and more lavish use of 
greenery, performing both a utilitarian and 
an aesthetic mission by absorbing carbonic 
gases and by giving out oxygen, by relieving 
monotony, and by speaking to the hearts of 
men the uplifting language of nature. The 
city government has manifested interest and 
a desire to co-operate in the movement. It 
supports a nursery to supply trees for civic 
adornment and it is gradually introducing a 
system of ornamental street lighting. 

Monuments. The most imposing monument 
in New Orleans is that in memory of General 
Robert E. Lee. It surmounts a large grassy 
mound and is a shaft 107 feet high. At the 
top is a fine bronze statue of the great Confed- 
erate leader. 

At the entrance to the City Park is a very 
handsome bronze equestrian statue of General 
Beauregard. 

Surrounded by the wonderful live oaks and 
flowering shrubs, there is a beautiful monn 
ment to the great bird lover and scientist. John 
Audubon, who is claimed by Louisiana as a 
native son. The unique statute to a woman, 
the philanthropist, called Margaret, is men- 
tioned in Chapter XI. on page 107. 

Jackson Square has a very fine equestrian 
statue of General Andrew Jackson, the hero of 
the battle of New Orleans. Lafayette Square 
has a statue of John McDonogh, mentioned on 
pages 133-134, also a fine statue of Henry Clay. 



150 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Liberty Monument, at the foot of Canal 
Street, is a silent witness to the overthrow of 
reconstruction government. See page 38. 



On the Jefferson Davis Parkway, there is a 
striking monument to the President of the 
Southern Confederacy. 



SECTION 3. PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS. 



Need of Open Spaces in Cities. Public 
parks and squares have been called the lungs 
of great cities; they are as necessary to the 
health of a community as the organs of 
breathing are to an individual. Disease is 
fostered, human life shortened by the dusty, 
foul, ill-smelling atmosphere of congested dis- 
tricts. Since present economic conditions force 
people to live in such surroundings, it is the 
duty of the municipality to provide some 
means of alleviation. As many workers have 
neither time nor money 
to go long distances in 
search of fresh air, 
small parks distributed 
through every section 
of the city, supply this 
need. The trees and 
shrubs help to purify 
the atmosphere and af- 
ford a pleasant relief 
from the monotony of 
workshops or offices. 

The French Place. 
The French, particu- 
larly, make generous 
use of the small parks 
or places usually a center around which im- 
portant buildings are grouped, or as parts of a 
system connected by splendid boulevards or 
driveways. When de la Tour planned New 
< >rleans, he provided for an open square, the 
Place d'Armes, now Jackson Square, to serve 
the double purpose of a place of recreation for 
the public and, as the old name implies, a 
parade ground for the soldiers. 

The Park: Function. The small parks and 
squares serve a purpose, but every city needs 
a large park, a place where people can seek rest 
and seclusion away from the noises and op- 
pressive atmosphere of the heart of the city. 
The park supplies a physical need for sunshine, 
fresh air, and quiet, by offering a means of 
wholesome relaxation and change; it stimulates 
mental activity; and through the beauties of 



DELGADO ART MUSEUM 



nature ordered and arranged by the art of man, 
it fosters a love of the beautiful. 

New Orleans Parks: City Park and Audubon 
Park. A large portion of the area of City 
Park was the property of Louis Allard, which, 
being sold for mortgages, became the property 
of John McDonogh. The former owner, then 
in the decline of life, was allowed to pass his 
remaining years at his old home, and was laid 
to rest beneath the stately oaks he had loved 
so well. McDonogh willed the plantation with 

the rest of his estate to 
the cities of Baltimore 
and New Orleans. Bal- 
timore abandoned her 
claim in payment of 
taxes; New Orleans 
then set aside the tract 
as a public park. It re- 
mained unimproved for 
many years, until 
placed in the hands of a 
commission. The com- 
missioners had to solve 
the problem of con- 
verting a swamp 
through which slug- 
gish bayous wound their tortuous course, into 
a beautiful spot for rest and recreation. The 
swamps were drained, the underbrush cleared, 
and the muddy, stagnant bayous transformed 
into winding lagoons arched by artistic bridges. 
City Park now charms all nature-lovers. The 
wonderful trees of City Park, in particular the 
mighty live oaks, are noted; nearly every tree 
found in Louisiana is represented; the principal 
ones beside the live oaks, being the magnolia, 
pine, cedar, cypress, and camphor. In the 
spring, the huge wistaria vines laden with their 
gorgeous lavender blossoms, give an oriental 
touch to the landscape. The open-air rose gar- 
den is an object of attention and admiration, 
the year round. The Delgado Art Museum is 
in the center of the park, by the side of the 
little lake. As its name implies, it was the gift 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



151 



of Isaac Delgado. Very fittingly, the edifice 
was fashioned after a Greek temple and is 
itself a work of art. The exhibit, though still 
small, contains many pieces of value. Mr. 
Delgado made a donation to the exhibit; Mr. 
Morgan Whitney bequeathed to it his collection 
of jades, and Mrs. Chapman Hyams, her beau- 
tiful art collection valued at $250,000. Mr. 
( line has lent a very valuable collection of 
antiquities and Dr. Joseph Holt a beautiful col- 
lection of Japanese porcelain. A lovely pros- 
pect may lie obtained of the museum, from the 
bridge that crosses Bayou St. John at the foot 
of Esplanade, through the long avenue of trees 
and palms that leads up to the museum. 

Audubon Park was formerly the Foucher 
plantation. Pierre Foucher obtained the upper 
part in 1793, and the lower part in 1825. This 
lower section is of peculiar historic interest. 
It was part of Etienne de Bore's plantation 
where sugar was first granulated in 1794, and 
whore Charles Gayarre, Louisiana's eminent 
historian, passed his youth. The Foucher 
plantation was purchased by the city in 1871, 
and was known as Upper City Park; in 1887, 
it was renamed "Audubon Park," in honor 
of the great naturalist. A statue in the central 
1 idit ion of the park, now also serves to honor 
his memory. The park was unimproved up 
to the Cotton Centennial Exposition; but the 
Exposition directed attention to the park as 
an important and easily 
improved asset to the 
city. Its natural advan- 
tages have been well 
utilized. Extending 
from St. Charles 
Avenue to the Eiver, it 
has an unusual expanse. 
The broad green 
swards, clusters and 
avenues of palms and 
trees, and the far-famed 
grove of magnificent, 
old live oaks have an 
unfailing aesthetic ap- 
peal. A large artificial 
lake has been construct- 
ed and adds the final 
touch to the beautiful 
landscape of Audubon 
Park. 



Two Park Commissions administer the 
affairs of the parks and see to the im- 
provements. 

Squares and Playgrounds. New Orleans is 
singularly fortunate in the number of small 
parks, or open squares and playgrounds dis- 
tributed throughout the city. There is Jackson 
Square, the old Place d'Armes, famous in his- 
tory and romance; Lafayette Square, between 
the City Hall and the new Post Office; Coliseum 
Place, a favorite resort for children; Annuncia- 
tion Square, Washington Square, and many 
others serve as breathing spots for residents of 
crowded districts. The playgrounds, equipped 
with swings, see-saws, merry-go-rounds, and 
other apparatus that delight the hearts of chil- 
dren, are kept up in many parts of the city. 
Boys and girls not only reap the benefit of sun- 
shine, fresh air, and exercise so necessary to 
build up the bone and tissue of growing limbs, 
but they are taught organization, self-control, 
and responsibility by means of supervised 
games. New Orleans has more fresh-air space 
per-capita than any other city in the world, for 
no city with equal population, and but one 
or two with greater population, include such 
a large area. 

Flora of New Orleans. So varied is the 
vegetation of this semi-tropical climate that 
an attempt to list its trees, shrubs, and 
flowers would be a heavy task. Here, the 




OAK8 IN AUDUBON PARK. 



152 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



hardy plants of colder climes thrive side by 
side with the delicate products of warmer re- 
gions. Many more varieties of trees are found 
in Louisiana than in the State of California; the 
most conspicuous are the varieties of oaks, the 
cypress, poplar, willow, pecan, beautiful white- 
flowering magnolia and linden. Among the 
shrubs that adorn the parks and gardens, are 
the crepe myrtle and oleander of several dif- 
ferent colors, the sweet olive, the camellia, 
white, pink, and red, and an endless variety of 
jasmines. Roses of every description and color 
thrive; the hibiscus, hydrangea, and beautiful 
crimson poinsettia adorn the gardens. "Par- 
terres" are filed with a profusion of annuals, 
sweet alysum, marigold, petunia, phlox, pansies, 
portulaca, balsams. The wistaria, which in 
spring is massed with delicate and exquisite 
clusters of lavender blossoms, and the trailing 
rosa montana, whose delicate deep coral sprays 
burst into bloom in late summer, grace many 
a gallery, fence, and arbor. ' An eminent 
botanist has said, "Though perhaps the flora 
of Louisiana lacks the tropical beauty of 
Florida, or the stupendous grandeur of the 
forests of California, yet in the diversity and 
variety of its plant life, it is second probably 
to no State in the Union." 

Birds. Altogether, about one hundred and 
fifty species of birds have been noted from time 
to time, within the settled area of the city. 
About ten of these are common residents to be 
seen regularly at any season, and include the 
vultures, grackle, or crow blackbird, cardinal, 
mockingbird, and Carolina Wren. Added to 
this number in summer and nesting more or less 
freely in the parks and elsewhere in the resi- 
dential sections, are the cuckoo, chimney swift, 



orchard oriole, purple martin, red-eyed vireo 
and gnatcatcher. 

The bare trees of winter reveal the wax- 
wing and myrtle and orange-crowned warblers, 
while the live oak often shelters the diminutive 
kinglet, all of which come to the latitude of 
New Orleans in fall from the north, returning 
there in the spring. 

The largest clasn of birds found in this 
vicinity, however, consists of migratory species 
that appear for only limited periods in spring 
and fall as they pass Iietween northern nesting 
grounds and winter homes in the tropics. 
Various warblers, several species of thrushes, 
vireos and fly-catchers, cat birds, indigo bunt- 
ings, Baltimore orioles, scarlet tanagers, rose- 
breasted grosbeaks, and swallows in great num- 
bers often make their appearance in favorable 
weather in spring and fall while the water bird- 
life at New Orleans in winter is justly cele- 
brated because it includes the ducks, the aquatic 
species found there in summer are more showy 
than those of winter. The herons, gallinules, 
least bittern, and white ibis are attractive forms 
inhabiting the swamp and marsh in greater or 
less abundance. 

Many favorable localities for the study of 
birds are found immediately about New Or- 
leans, and in a comparatively small area, such 
diversified forms of bird-life as the anhinga, 
or water turkey, pileated woodpecker, crested 
fly catcher, painted bunting, white-eyed vireo, 
Carolina chickadee, prothonotary warbler and 
wood thrush may be found in summer, or some 
of these with the kildeer, sparrow hawk, phoebe, 
swamp sparrow, palm warbler and pipit in 
winter. 



SECTION 4. PAVING. 



Necessity for Paving. The question of 
pavements is one of great importance to a 
municipality. With the growth of a city and 
the consequent increase in traffic, paving lie- 
comes a necessity, for the continual hauling 
of heavy vehicles produces stifling dust in dry 
weather and impassable bogs during rains. 
And again, an unpaved street is both a 
hindrance to traffic, and a menace to health. 
It cannot be so easily or thoroughly cleaned 



as smooth pavement; even after sprinkling, the 
^vim-laden dust soon rises with the passing 
of every vehicle; the drainage is less perfect 
than on a paved street; and, too often, it is an 
unsightly dumping ground for trash. Hence 
the needs of traffic, sanitary conditions, and the 
appearance of the city make paving necessary. 
Early Paving. The conditions of New Or- 
leans streets drained by open wooden gutters 
and bordered by wooden sidewalks was far from 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



153 



being sanitary. In 1817, in the face of much 
skepticism on account of the nature of the soil, 
the block on Gravier Street between Tchoupi- 
toulas and Magazine, was paved with cobble- 
stones. This was the first paving laid in New 
Orleans, and proving successful was gradually 
increased. In 1820, brick sidewalks replaced 
those of wood on the main thoroughfares, but 
it was not until 1821 that any systematic 
attempt was made to pave the streets. As there 
is no stone near the city, material for paving 
had to be brought from a great distance. In 
order to obtain stone, the city offered a premium 
for rock ballast. This plan was quite effectual. 
The heavy Belgian block was laid in a pretty 
diagonal pattern on many streets. Although 
some of the Belgian block still remains, the 
heavy traffic and the insecure foundation have 
caused the patterns long since to disappear. St. 
Charles Street was paved in 1822 and work 
begun on several commercial streets in the 
old and new town; but the impulse toward 
municipal improvements soon subsided. Up 
to 1835, only two streets had been paved for 
any considerable length; elsewhere, vehicles 
sank up to the hub in mire after heavy rains. 
The first paving with square granite blocks 
was done in 1850. 

Paving at Present 
Time. New Orleans 
covers such an exten- 
sive area that, al- 
though there are sev- 
eral hundred miles of. 
paved streets, there 
are many times that 
amount still unpaved. 
The kinds of pave- 
ment now being used 
in New Orleans are 
asphalt (pitch), rock 
asphalt, bithulithic, 
mineral rubber, gran- 
itoid, wood block, 
and granite block. 

Asphalt. Asphalt 
is either obtained 
from natural lakes in 
Trinidad and Venez- 
uela or is manufac- 
t u red li ere from 
crude oil. The asphalt 
is not laid upon the 



soil. The model pavement of any kind must 
first have a six-inch concrete base next to the 
soil to give solidity and strength. The heat of 
the sun somewhat softens the asphalt, and 
heavy wagons passing over it in this condition 
indent it; in these depressions, the water col- 
lects and rots the pavement. To prevent the 
asphalt from slipping, a two-inch hinder course 
of tar and crushed stone is laid over the con- 
crete before the asphalt is applied. The tar 
sticks firmly to the concrete and the rough 
edges of the stone hold the asphalt in place. 
For the final layer, about 75 per cent, of river 
and lake sand is mixed with 12 per cent asphalt, 
the remaining portion consisting of mineral 
dust, or powdered granite used as a "filler." 
These are thoroughly mixed and heated to 250°, 
so that the total amount of expansion may take 
place in the mass. It is laid hot upon the sur- 
face of the street, and, in cooling, contracts, 
holding firmly to the rough surface of the 
binder. Immediately after the mixture is 
spread upon the street, it is rolled with a five- 
ton roller to compress particles of sand together 
in a solid mass. Asphalt pavement can be laid 
about as cheaply in New Orleans as elsewhere, 
because sand is easily procured and the asphalt 
is either made here or transported by water. 




CKEOSOTED WOOD BLm h PAVEMENT. 



154 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Creosoted Wood Block. The best kind of 
pavement for heavy traffic is the creosoted 
wood block. It may be considered a home 
product, for the blocks are made from the 
native long leaf yellow pine. In the manufac- 
ture of tbe creosoted wood blocks, the pine is 
cut into blocks of uniform size. They are sub- 
jected to the vacuum process, which evaporates 
all sap and water, leaving the blocks porous. 
Creosote under heavy pressure is forced into 
the cylinder containing the blocks, which thus 
become permeated with the creosote. This 
pavement costs about 30 per cent, more than 
asphalt, as most of the creosote is imported, but 
the expense, ultimately, is not greater, for it 
lasts longer and does not require as frequent 
repair. The creosoted wood block is noiseless, 
compared with pavements of less elastic mate- 



rial; it is sanitary, as creosote is a germicide, 
and it endures without injury enormous weight 
and great shocks, as the falling of heavy ma- 
chinery. Therefore the floors of foundries and 
other manufacturing places, and the docks are 
being paved with creosoted wood blocks. The 
government machine shops in Balboa, Canal 
Zone, are paved with this material. 

Expenditure for Paving. The City pays 
one-fourth the cost of paving single streets 
and one-third the cost of double streets; the 
property holders pay the balance according to 
the frontage of their property along the street 
to be paved. On streets where car lines run, 
the railway company paves between the 
tracks and eighteen inches on either side, or 
the entire street, according to their franchise 
for each section. 



SECTION 5. STREET LIGHTING. 



Necessity of Street Lighting. Efficient 
street lighting serves a threefold purpose: it 
beautifies a city, prevents accidents, and les- 
sens crime. Proper arrangement of lights sup- 
ported by ornamental brackets or poles, adds 
to the artistic appearance of streets by day as 
well as by night. Bobbers make use of dark 
streets where they can hide unobserved while 
waiting to attack unsuspecting persons; car- 
riages, not having the powerful lights of the 
automobiles may come to grief, or pedestrians, 
groping their way in darkness may meet with 
some accident. 

Street Lighting in the Past. Governor 
Carondelet, responsible for much municipal im- 
provement, first established a system of street 
lighting in New Orleans (See Page 20). The 
use of oil lamps, suspended from wooden posts 
at the street intersections, continued well into 
the period of American rule. The light from 
these penetrated but a short distance, thus 
blocks where trees overhung the street, were 
shrouded in darkness. The sidewalks were infe- 
rior and those persons called forth for business 



or pleasure after nightfall, carried lanterns. 
Through the dim-lit streets, many a gay party 
made its way preceded by servants bearing 
swinging lights that daintily slippered feet 
might avoid foot-falls and mud-puddles. Gas 
street lamps were introduced about 1833 and 
continued in use for over half a century. Some 
of the old-time residents may still remember 
the lamp-lighter, who at dusk made his round; 
as the use of electricity gradually superseded 
gas, he became a less familiar figure and now 
is seen no more. 

Present City Lighting. The cost of arc 
lights with underground connection, is greater 
than those with overhead wires; but the former 
are preferable because of the unsightliness of 
the overhead wires. Many cities require tele- 
phone, telegraph, trolley, and lighting wires 
to be placed underground. In sonic parts of 
the city, the arc lights at street intersections, 
are being replaced by incandescent lights along 
the block. The effect is much more beautiful, 
and the light more evenly distributed, especially 
where large trees overhang the street. 



SECTION 6. CIVIC VIRTUES. 



Kindness and Cheerfulness. By nature a 
social being, man should not ignore his relation 
to society. These very relations give rise to 



certain obligations; one of the greatest of 
these is to consider the happiness of others. 
The cultivation of a kindly cheerful disposition 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



155 



ready with little deeds of good will, sym- 
pathy, and hospitality to disseminate sunshine 
through the world is a duty hoth to self and 
to one's fellow-men. The value of a kind and 
cheerful disposition cannot be over-estimated. 

Order and Cleanliness. Barbarous men do 
not know the use of water; the savages of Africa 
anoint their bodies with oil; the nomads of the 
desert rub their skin with sand; civilized 
people recognize the agreeable and salutary 
effects of the unstinted use of soap and water. 
Clean thoughts and clean language are even 
more obligatory tban bodily cleanliness, be- 
cause vulgarity of speech, profane or obscene 
language, not only offend sensitive natures, 
but poison minds and hearts. Personal clean- 
liness should be accompanied by good order in 
one's surroundings: the condition of a home 
indicates the character of its inmates. People 
who take pride in the attractive appearance 
of their property, who allow no breeding place 
for rats and roaches, who are too orderly to 
throw trash in public places, are a desirable 
element in any community. 

Honesty and Courage. Honesty in public 
and private life lias many phases; it implies 
freedom from pretense, truthfulness of speech, 
being worthy of confidence, fidelity to trust 
reliability in the performance of duty, sincerity, 
uprightness, integrity, and a high sense of 
justice in all human relations. Without such 
qualities in men and women, the whole fabric of 
law and order would be destroyed. The stead- 
fast adherence to the dictates of honor, requires 
more moral courage than physical bravery. 
When boys and girls resist the inclination to 
cheat or tell untruths, they are laying a 
foundation of character, which will develop 
into right citizenship. This moral courage 
gives also the power to bear responsibility, 
which, as long as men live together, will fall 
to the lot of all. 

Self-Control. Will power is needed for the 
governance of man's lower inclinations. Intem- 
perance in any form, is a lack of self-control. 
Those who wish to preserve vigor of body and 
mind, to be useful to the community in which 
they live, and to render patriotic service to 
their country, must be temperate in the use 
of alcholic beverages, and narcotic stimulants 
and drugs which, especially during the period 
of youth, retard physical and mental growth. 
Self-control implies moderation in the pursuit 



of pleasure, the lack of which leads to waste- 
fulness, poverty, and dissipation. Quiet con- 
duct in public places and repression during 
performances, are necessary for the conven- 
ience and pleasure of others. 

Industry. Thrift and industry go hand in 
hand. Idleness is far-reaching in its results; 
it is largely responsible for ignorance, pov- 
erty, and vice; it helps to fill prisons, reforma- 
tories, and insane asylums, throwing a heavy 
burden upon the municipality or the state. On 
the other hand industry brings self-respect, 
contentment, comfort, and increase in skill. 
All are not called upon to work in the same 
way; some are more proficient in lines of 
mental activity, while others succeed better 
at manual labor. But as every one has the 
power to work in some manner, every one 
must labor. The history of the world teaches 
the reward of labor and the punishment of 
idleness. For a city to be truly great, it is 
necessary that the citizens be industrious. 

Respect for Authority. Authority is law- 
fully constituted power of control and direc- 
tion. Eespect for authority is the recognition 
of that power and rendering it obedience. In 
Chapter XV., it was seen how it was neces- 
sary in a city to have persons in authority, 
to have a government. Since that authority 
is necessary, it follows that it must be recog- 
nized and obeyed, else why have the authority? 
Lack of respect for authority, is a chief 
fault of the youth of the United States, re- 
sulting, perhaps, from a misunderstanding of 
freedom. The independence of a people can- 
not be maintained without authority, for, in 
its absence, unruly persons would disregard 
the rights of others in the attempt to satisfy 
their own desires. Respect for authority im- 
plies respect for all persons in whom authority 
is vested, whether it be parents or guar- 
dians, teachers, or officials of the city, state 
or nation. 

Courtesy. Courtesy is an elegance of 
manner resulting from consideration of the 
needs of others. It is "the virtue of civiliza- 
tion." Its exercise is an indication of good 
breeding and intelligence, and requires com- 
pliance with the accepted rules of social inter- 
course. Reverence for old age without regard 
to station, dress, or other circumstances, and 
honor and respect for women, have become 
the essentials of the Southern ideal of cour- 



156 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



tesy, an ideal made world-famous by the past 
generations of Southern men. In the South- 
land men and hoys do not speak to women 
without raising their hats; upon a woman en- 
tering an elevator, they remove their hats; in 
the street cars, the men stand that the women 
may have the seats; people say "please" 
when asking for something, and "thank you" 
on receiving it; the aged are assisted across 
thoroughfares, up and down stairs. A worthy 
example of this thoughtfulness is the kindly 
assistance the conductors on the cars extend 
to passengers entering or leaving the cars, 
especially in the case of the aged, whom they 
assist to ascend and alight from the cars. Such 
courtesy is possible only by the continual per- 
formance of courteous acts, resulting in the 
formation of a habit that gains the good-will of 
others for the possessor and adds grace and 
charm to his personality. 

Civic Interest. Something has been said of 
what other cities with great civic spirit have 
accomplished. Every good citizen takes an 
interest in the affairs of his municipality, votes, 
pays his taxes, and lends his support to all 
movements for progress and improvements. 
Children can manifest civic interest by caring 
for public property, in particular, by not 
mutilating the interior or exterior of public 
buildings, trees, or flowers, by caring for 
library books, by being active workers in the 
cause of order and cleanliness. (Chapter XV.) 

The Beauty of Right Living. In this 
chapter, many kinds of material beauty have 
heen considered. Now, we come to view 
beauty which is far more than any of those; 
it is not a thine of matter like the beautiful 



flowers, nor is it generally short-lived, for it 
becomes in time the heritage of the gener- 
ations; it is the beauty of right living. The 
beauty of right living is the root of hap- 
piness; if a person possessed every kind of 
material beauty in the world, and, yet, did 
not live rightly, that person would not be 
happy. And what is right living? Ordering 
one's life so as to do all the good possible, and 
to refrain from all the evil possible. For a 
child to live rightly, he must be like 
the most useful English verbs, active and 
passive; active in the commission of good deeds, 
but passive when it comes to the commission 
of bad ones. Right living gains for a person 
the admiration and affection of family and 
friends, and the appreciation of a worthy com- 
munity. To live rightly, a boy or girl must act 
well not only at home and in school, but in 
the public thoroughfares and places, amuse- 
ments resorts, etc. It implies an adherence to 
those civic virtues we have considered, and to 
other virtues, that may be known to us to be 
necessary, and requires continued effort for its 
attainment. The beauty of right living is the 
fruit of worthy deeds and is possible of attain- 
ment by all persons, for it is independent of 
wealth, great intelligence, and physical beauty, 
depending solely on the good will of the 
individual. 

TOPICS: Section 1, City Building; Section 2, Building of 
New Orleans; Section 3, Public Pleasure Grounds; 
Section 4, Paving; Section 5, Street Lighting; 
Section 6, Civic Virtues. 

REFERENCES: European Cities at Work, F. C. Howe; 
Personality of American Cities, E. Hungerford; 
History and Conditions of New Orleans, Waring and 
Cable; Commissioner of Public Property, City Hall. 



SUPPLEMENT 



DEFINITION OF A CONSTITUTION. 



The State government is regulated by the 
State Constitution, which is a document made 
by the people through a convention held for 
that purpose. It prescribes the form of govern- 
ment, and is the basic law of the State. The 
Constitution is frequently changed by the of Rights. 



majority vote of the people at election. The 
United States Constitution is above the State 
Constitution, just as the State is above the 
City. 

The State Constitution begins with The Bill 



OUTLINE OF STATE GOVERNMENT. 



Bill of Rights. 

By the "Bill of Rights," the citizen has 
what are known as his civil rights secured to 
him, such as life, liberty, and property. 

The "Bill of Rights" maintains that gov- 
ernment originates with the people, rests on 
their will, and is established for the good of all. 
' ' To secure justice, preserve peace, and promote 
the interests and happiness of the people" is 
the only lawful end of government. 

The people of the State are secure in the 
enjoyment of life, liberty, property, freedom 
of religion and of speech. The courts are 
thrown open to all for the enjoyment of im- 
partially dispensed justice. Arms are allowed 
to be carried when not concealed. In trials, 
the accused is granted an impartial jury, the 



assistance of counsel, and the forced attend- 
ance of witnesses for his defense, and is 
confronted with his accusers and is informed 
of the nature and cause of the accusation 
brought against him. No person may be com- 
pelled to give evidence of a criminal nature 
against himself. There may be no excessive 
bail nor fines, nor cruel and unusual punish- 
ments. "The privilege of the writ of habeas 
corpus" can only be suspended in time of 
invasion or rebellion, or whenever else the 
public safety may demand it. The military is 
subordinate to the civil power. The listing of 
these rights does not deny or impair any other 
rights of the people not mentioned in the "Bill 
of Rights," as contained in the Constitution of 
Louisiana. 



DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. 



Division. The powers of government are 
divided into three distinct departments, as 
follows: legislative, executive, and judicial. 
The members of one department may not hold 
office in another except in a few instances, which 
may be expressly provided for by law. 



A. Legislative Department. 

General Assembly. The legislative power is 
vested in a General Assembly, composed of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives. The 
General Assembly meets at noon in the capital 
city, Baton Rouge, on the second Monday in 



II. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



May of the even years, for a session of not 
more than sixty days. Members of the General 
Assembly are privileged from arrest during 
their attendance at the sessions and in going to 
and from the same, except in cases of treason, 
felony, or breach of the peace. They are paid 
five dollars per day during attendance, and are 
allowed five cents per mile going to and return- 
ing from the capital. Each house has to keep a 
journal of its proceedings, which is preserved 
in the office of the Secretary of State. A 
quorum consists of not less than a majority of 
each house. Neither house may adjourn for 
more than three days nor to any place, without 
the consent of the other. No member may 
during his term of office nor for one year there- 
after, be appointed or elected to any civil office 
of profit under the State, which may have been 
created or the income from which may have 
been increased, during the time he was a mem- 
ber of the General Assembly. The House of 
Eepresentatives has the sole power of impeach- 
ment and the Senate of trying cases of impeach- 
ment. No person may be convicted without a 
two-thirds vote of the Senators present. When 
the Governor of the State is on trial, the 
Chief Justice or the senior Associate Justice 
of the Supreme Court presides over the Senate. 
How a Bill Becomes a Law. A law may 
embrace but one subject, which must be ex- 
pressed in the title. In order for a bill to be- 
come a law, it must be read on three different 
occasions in each house and reported by a 
committee and, in its final passage, receive the 
affirmative vote of a majority of the members 
elected to the house. When a bill has been 
passed by both houses and returned to the 
house in which it originated, it is sent to the 
Governor to be signed. Should the Governor 
refuse to sign it, he must return it with his 
objections, to the house in which it originated. 
It may then be passed over the Governor's 
veto by a two-thirds vote of all the members of 
each house. Should the Governor keep a 
bill longer than five days without signing it, 
it would become a law just as though he had 
signed it, unless the General Assembly ad- 
journed sine die during the interval. An acfr : 
does not become a law until it is promulgated, 
that is, until ten days after publication in the 
State Journal, unless it be a general appropri- 
ation act, or act appropriating money for the 
expenses of the General Assembly. A bill may 



not be again proposed in the house in which it 
was rejected without the consent of the ma- 
jority of that house. 

House of Representatives. Representation 
is based on population, but each parish, and 
each ward of the city of New Orleans must 
have at least one representative; representa- 
tion is directed to be reapportioned after each 
United States census. The number of repre- 
sentatives may not exceed 120. The necessary 
qualifications of a representative are: (1) he 
must be an elector; (2) a resident of the State 
for five years; (3) for two years preceding his 
election, an actual resident of the parish or 
ward from which he is elected. A member's 
seat becomes vacant on his changing his resi- 
dence from the parish or ward from which he 
was elected. The term of office is four years. 
The House of Representatives judges of the 
qualifications, elections, and returns of its own 
members, chooses its own officers, determines 
the rules of the proceedings, and may punish 
its members for disorderly conduct or con- 
tempt and, with the concurrence of two-thirds 
of all its members elected, expel a member. It 
may punish also any other person guilty of 
disrespect, or disorderly, or contemptuous be- 
havior during the session; such imprisonment 
may not exceed ten days for each offense. All 
bills for raising revenue or appropriating 
money must originate in the House of Repre- 
sentatives, but the Senate may propose or 
concur in amendments, as in other bills. 

Senate. Whenever the representation in 
the House of Representatives be apportioned, 
the State is divided into Senatorial districts; 
no parish, except that of Orleans, may be 
divided in the formation of such districts; 
when a new parish is made, it is attached to 
the senatorial district from which most of its 
territory was taken. There may not be more 
than forty-one senators nor less than thirty- 
six, and they are apportioned among the dif- 
ferent districts according to the total popula- 
tion contained in the several districts. A 
senator must be at least twenty-five years of 
age and have the other qualifications required 
of a representative. The Senate, like the House 
of Representatives, judges of the qualifications, 
elections, and returns of its members, chooses 
its own officers, except the President of the 
Senate, determines the rules of its proceedings, 
and punishes its members for disorderly con- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



m. 



duct and contempt, and, with the concurrence 
of two-thirds of all the members elected, may 
expel a member. It may punish any other 
person guilty of disrespect, disorderly or con- 
temptuous behavior during the session; such 
imprisonment may not exceed ten days for each 
offense. 

Limitations of Legislative Power. No 
money may be drawn from the treasury 
except as appropriated by law, nor may any 
such appropriation be for longer than two 
years. The General Assembly has no power 
to authorize the contraction of any debts, 
except for the purpose of repelling invasion or 
suppressing insurrection. There are numerous 
restrictions on the passing of local or special 
laws; for instance, no law may be passed for the 
opening and conducting of elections, or fixing, 
or changing the place of voting, etc. The price 
of manual labor may not be fixed by law. No 
member may vote on a bill in which he has any 
personal or private interest. No appropriations 
may be made for any church, or minister, or 
private charitable institution. 

B. Executive Department. 

Members. The members of the executive 
department are the Governor, Lieutenant- 
Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and 
Auditor. 

Election and Term. The officers of this de- 
partment are elected at the general State elec- 
tion of representatives, for a term of four years. 
In case of the absence, resignation, death, or 
removal from office of the Governor, the 
succession devolves first upon the Lieutenant- 
Governor, then upon the President pro tempore 
of the Senate. In case of the absence, resigna- 
tion, death, or removal from office of any of the 
other offices of the department, the Governor 
fills the vacancy with the advice and consent of 
the Senate. The Secretary of State has the right 
to appoint an Assistant Secretary of State. 

Eligibility. Any qualified elector is eligible 
for these offices, except those of Governor and 
Lieutenant-Governor; for these positions he 
must be at least thirty years of age, ten years a 
citizen of the United States, and a resident of 
the State for ten years preceding his election to 
office. No person holding office under the United 
States government at the time of or within six 
months immediately preceding the election, 
may be elected to these offices. The Governor 



and Treasurer may not succeed themselves in 
office, but become eligible again at the expira- 
tion of one or more terms after they have 
served. 

Salaries. The Governor's salary since 1916, 
has been $7,500 per year. The Lieutenant- 
Governor receives $1,500 per year. The Secre- 
tary of State and the Auditor receive $5,000 
and the Treasurer $4,000 per year. 

Duties and Powers of the Governor. The 
Governor enters into office on the third Monday 
in May. The Governor has the power to grant 
reprieves for offenses against the State, except 
in cases of impeachment or treason; he may, on 
the recommendation of the Board of Pardons, 
grant pardons, commute sentences, and remit 
fines and forfeitures. The Governor, with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, appoints all 
officers whose election is not provided for by 
the Constitution or by special act of the General 
Assembly. He is commander-in-chief of the 
militia of the State, except when they are in 
actual service of the United States. He must 
keep the General Assembly informed as to the 
affairs of the State and make such recommenda- 
tions for its consideration as he may deem 
expedient. It is his duty to see that the laws are 
faithfully enforced and he may, on extraordi- 
nary occasions, convene the General Assembly, 
provided it be for a session of not more than 
thirty days. Before an act may become a law, 
it must be signed by the Governor; should he 
veto it, he must return it with his objections 
to the house in which it originated; it may then, 
by a two-thirds vote of all the members of both 
houses, be passed over his veto. Should the 
Governor keep a bill longer than five days be- 
fore signing it, it becomes a law just as though 
he had signed it, unless the General Assembly 
had adjourned sine die during the interval. The 
Governor may veto any distinct item of a bill 
making appropriations for money and the part 
vetoed may become a law only by an affirmative 
vote of two-thirds of all the members of both 
houses. 

Duties and Powers of Lieutenant-Governor. 

The Lieutenant-Governor enters into office with 
the Governor. He is ex-officio president of the 
Senate. "When discharging the duties of the 
Governor, he receives the same compensation 
as that to which the Governor would have been 
entitled had he remained in office. He is a mem- 
ber of the Board of Pardons. 



IV. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Commissions. All commissions to officials, 
whether elected or appointed, are in the name 
and by the authority of the State of Louisiana. 
They must be sealed with the seal of the 
State, 1 signed by the Governor, and counter- 
signed by the Secretary of State. 
C. Judicial Department. 

Courts. The judicial power of the State is 
vested in a Supreme Court, Courts of Appeal, 
District Courts, City Courts, Juvenile Courts, 
Justices of the Peace, and other inferior courts. 

1. Supreme Court. 

Jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has appel- 
late and original jurisdiction. It has control 
and general supervision of all inferior courts. 
Its appellate jurisdiction in civil cases extends 
to those involving an amount to exceed two 
thousand dollars ($2000), and in criminal cases 
where the punishment exceeds six months' im- 
prisonment, or where a fine of over three hun- 
dred dollars ($300) has been imposed. 

Members. This court is composed of one 
Chief Justice and four Associate Justices, a ma- 
jority of whom constitutes a quorum. They are 
elected for a term of twelve years. 

Sessions. The Supreme Court holds an 
annual session in the city of New Orleans, 
beginning not later than the first Monday in 
November and ending not sooner than June 30th 
in each year. All processes are conducted in 
the name of the State of "Louisiana." 

Courts of Appeal. 

Jurisdiction. The Courts of Appeal were 
constituted to relieve the Supreme Court of 
some of its work. Their jurisdiction, which is 
only appellate, extends to civil cases when the 
amount in dispute or the sum to be distributed 
does not exceed two thousand dollars ($2,000). 

No criminal cases may be appealed to these 
courts. 

Circuits. The State is divided into two 
circuits exclusive of the parishes whose appeals 
are returnable to the Court of Appeal for the 
Parish of Orleans. Each circuit is divided into 
three districts. 

3. District Courts. 

Jurisdiction. The District Courts except in 
the Parish of Orleans have original jurisdiction 
in all civil matters where the amount in dispute 
exceeds one hundred dollars and in cases where 



the title to real estate is involved, or to office 
or other public positions, or civil or political 
rights. They have unlimited and exclusive 
jurisdiction in all criminal cases with a few 
exceptions, in all probate and succession mat- 
ters, and in cases where the State, a parish, 
municipality, or other political corporation is a 
party defendant. 

Number. The State may be divided into 
not less than twenty, nor more than thirty-two 
judicial districts; there are at present thirty- 
districts exclusive of the Parish of Orleans, 
which has two District Courts, the Civil District 
Court and Criminal District Court. 

Judges. There is usually one judge in each 
judicial district. In the case of large districts, 
however, there are two, as for instance, in the 
First District, composed of the Parish of Caddo. 

In the Parish of Orleans there are five judges 
of the Civil District Court and two of the 
Criminal District Court. These judges are 
elected by the qualified voters of the district. 
Their term of office is four years, except in the 
Parish of Orleans, in which it is twelve years; 
their salary is $3,000 per year, except in the 
Parish of Orleans, in which it is $5,000. The 
district judge has power to issue the writ of 
habeas corpus at the instance of any person in 
actual custody in his district. The writ of 
habeas corpus releases from illegal detention or 
unjust imprisonment. 

lThe seal of the State of Louisiana, as it has existed 
up to April 30, 1902, had no absolute authority of record 
for its existence. 

The first seal was chosen, supposedly, by Governor 
Claiborne, and was supposed to represent a pelican with 
a nest full of young. There was no change in this seal 
and no enactment providing for any seal until 1S64. When 
Henry W. Allen became Governor of the Confederate por- 
tion of the State, and Michael Hahn of the Federal por- 
tion; each had his seal; both seals were a pelican — one 
with the head on the left and the other with the head on 
the right; one with a nest full of young and the other 
with four young. Up to that time, the inscription on the 
seal was "Justice, Union and Confidence"; subsequently, 
without any apparent authority, the inscription upon the 
seal was changed to "Union, Justice and Confidence." 

In order to establish uniformity in the State seal and 
in its use among various departments of the government, 
on April 30, 1902, Governor Heard, acting under authority 
of Section 3471 of the Revised Statutes, directed the Sec- 
retary of State to use a seal, the description of which is 
given below, and this is the first directing order that has 
come from the chief magistrate and that stands of record 
legitimizing the seal for the State: 

"A pelican, with its head turned to the left, in a nest 
with three young; the pelican, following tradition, in the 
act of tearing its breast to feed its young; around the edge 
of the seal to be inscribed 'State of Louisiana.' Over the 
head of the pelican to be inscribed 'Union, Justice and'; 
under the nest of the pelican to be inscribed 'Confi- 
dence.'" (W. O. Hart.) 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Jury. Cases in which the punishment may 
ii«ii be al hard labor, are tried by the judges 
without a jury; cases in which the punishment 
may be al hard labor, musl be tried by a jury 
of five, all of whom musl concur to render a 
verdict; cases in which the punishmenl maj be 
capital, must be tried by a jury of twelve, all 
of whom must concur to render a verdict. There 
are juries for trying civil and criminal cases. 
The Grand Jury, composed of twelve members, 
is impanelled in each parish twice a year; nine 
must agree to find an indictment or accusation. 

Sessions. Continuous sessions arc held dur- 
ing ten months of the year. In districts coni- 
posed of more than one parish, the judge sits 
alternately in each parish as the public business 
may require. Judgments must he signed after 
three days from their being given and are to be 
enforced ten days after the signing. 

4. Juvenile Courts. 

Courts. In the parishes, the district courts 
serve when necessary as Juvenile Courts, but in 
New ( Means there is a special Juvenile Court. 

Purpose. Juvenile Courts are established 
for the trial of all children seventeen years of 
age and under, charged as "neglected" or 
"delinquent," and all persons guilty of the vio- 
lation of laws for the protection of the physical, 
moral, or mental well-being of children, not 
punishable by death or hard labor. Cases of 
desert ion or non-support of children, by either 
parent, also belong to this court. 

Terms "Neglected" and "Delinquent." By 
"neglected" child is meant any child seventeen 
years of age or under, found destitute, or with- 
out proper guardianship, or whose home 
because of neglect, cruelty, wickedness or 
poverty of parents or guardians, is an unfit 
place for a child; or having one parent under- 
going punishment for crime, or found wander- 
ing about the streets at nighl without being on 
am lawful business. By "delinquent" child is 
meant any child seventeen years of age or 

under, found begging or n iving alms, singing 

or iila vim;- a musical instrument in any street 
or public place, for alms; or found living in 

places of had repute, visiting any saloon, | I 

room, etc., attempting to jump on moving trains 
or street cars for the purpose of stealing a ride; 
or found to be incorrigible or habitually using 



vile, obscene, or indecent language, or guilty of 
immoral conduct in public places or around 
schoolhouses, or growing up in idleness or 
crime, or running away from home or the State 

institution where he ma\ he kept, or violating 
any law of the State, or ordinance of any vil- 
lage, town-, city, or parish of the State. 

Officers. There are the judge of the court 
and probationary officers. These probationary 
officers, discreet persons of either sex, are ap- 
pointed by the court. The probation officers 
must attend court when cases assigned them 
are being heard; they have to investigate such 
cases and take charge of the child before or 
after the trial, according to the court's order; 
they have the power and authority of sheriffs 
to make arrests and perform other duties of 
their office. 

5. Sheriffs and Coroners. 

Sheriffs. At the general election, each 
parish, except that of Orleans, must elect a 
sheriff for four years. He must within thirty 
days of his election furnish bond. The sheriff 
has to see to the keeping of prisoners, convey- 
ing convicts, insane persons, juveniles, lepers, 
and other persons committed to any institution 
of the State; and must see to the service of 
process from another parish, and service of 
process or the performance of any duty within 
the limits of his own parish." For this, he is 
paid $500 a year for each representative the 
parish may have in the House of Representa- 
tives. He is also tax collector and receives five 
per cent of all sums collected. In Orleans Pal- 
ish, there is a Criminal and a Civil Sheriff. 

Coroners. A coroner is elected in each 
parish at the general election, for four years. 
It is the duty of the coroner to inquire into the 
causes of violent deaths occurring in his parish. 
The coroner takes the place of the sheriff when 
the office becomes vacant until it shall be filled, 
and when the sheriff is a party interested: he 
may not, however, perform the duties of tax 
collector. Coroners must he regularly licensed 
physicians. 

6. Attorney-General. 

Term. There is an attorney for the State, 
elected by the qualified voters of the State for 
a term of four years. 



VI. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



Qualifications. The attorney-general must 
be learned in the law and must have actually 
resided and practiced law as a licensed attorney 
in the State for five years preceding his 
election. 

Salary. The attorney-general is paid $5,000 
a year. 

Powers and Duties. The attorney-general 
appoints two assistant attorneys-general at 
salaries, respectively, of $4,000 and $3,500 per 
year. It is the duty of the attorney-general to 
attend to all such legal matters as the State 
may have an interest in or be a party to, and to 
prosecute and defend all suits wherein the 
State may be a party or have an interest. He is 
the legal adviser of the Governor. 

7. District Attorneys. 

Each judicial district must elect a district 
attorney at each presidential election for a 
four-year term. He receives $1,000 a year 
and fees. He must be a resident of the district 
and a licensed attorney. He prosecutes or tries 



to prove guilty a person accused of violating a 
State law. 

In the Parish of Orleans the District Attor- 
ney is now paid a salary of ten thousand dollars 
($10,000) per year with no fees. 

8. Justices of the Peace and Constables. 

Justices of the Peace. Each parish must 
elect justices of the peace for a term of four 
years. Justices of the peace have exclusive 
original jurisdiction in all civil matters, when 
the disputed amount is not more than $50, and 
original jurisdiction with the District Court 
when the amount does not exceed $100. They 
also have jurisdiction in minor criminal cases. 
They are paid a salary fixed by the police jury 
of the parish. 

Constables. Each court of the justice of the 
peace has a constable elected for four years. He 
is paid a salary by the police jury of the parish. 
The duties of the constable are similar to those 
of the sheriff; he must enforce the decisions of 
the court. 



SOME GENERAL PROVISIONS. 



Treason. Levying war against the State, or 
adhering to its enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort, constitute treason against the State. 

Lotteries. The State of Louisiana prohibits 
lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets. 

Gambling. The Constitution declares 



gambling to be a vice and that the General 
Assembly must pass laws to suppress it. 

Convicts. The State may employ convicts 
on public works such as roads, farms, etc., but 
they must be under the supervision of State 
officers. They may not be hired out to in- 
dividuals or corporations. 



THE PARISH AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. 



The Parish, a Public Corporate Body. The 

State of Louisiana is divided into parishes, as 
other States are divided into counties, for the 
purpose of local government. The French called 
these divisions of the territory "Paroisses," 
hence their being called parishes instead of 
counties. The parish is a public corporate body 
that may own and sell property, sue and be 
sued, exercise power of taxation for purposes of 
local government, local improvement, paying Off 



debts, and supporting schools. But the parish 
is made subordinate to the State by the Con- 
stitution, by which it was made. 

Changing Parish Line. Parish lines may 
be changed only on the affirmative vote of two- 
thirds of the qualified electors of the parishes 
affected by the law. For instance, when in 1912 
the Parish of Calcasieu was divided into the 
four parishes of Calcasieu, Allen, Jefferson 
Davis, and Beauregard, it was necessary for 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



VII. 



two-thirds of the qualified electors of Calcasieu 
to vote in favor of the division, otherwise it 
could not have been made. When such a division 
takes place, the property and assets, debts and 
liabilities of the former parish, are proportioned 
among its divisions. Similarly, for merging two 
or more parishes, it is necessary to have the con- 
sent of a majority of the qualified voters. 

Parish Subdivisions. Parishes are sub- 
divided into wards. When a parish is formed, 
the General Assembly decides the number of 
wards into which it may be divided, and the 
Police Jury arranges the limits of each ward. 

Issuance of Bonds. Parishes may issue 
bonds for purposes of public improvement when 
authorized by the vote of a majority of the 
taxpayers; such bonds may not run for more 
than forty years nor bear more than five per 
cent interest, nor be sold for less than par. The 
total bond issue of a parish may not exceed ten 
per cent of the assessed valuation of the prop- 
erty within its limits. Taxes for the payment 
of interest and principal of such debts may not 
be higher than "five mills on the dollar of 
assessed valuation of the property" in such 
parish. 

Police Jury. The electors in each ward of a 
parish elect a member of the Police Jury of the 
Parish. The Police Jury conducts the affairs 
of the parish; this jury may be said to be to the 
parish what the city council is to the city. 

Other Parochial Officers. The Sheriff, cor- 
oner, clerk of court, assessors, justice of the 
peace, constable, board of health, board of 



school directors, and superintendent of schools, 
are the other officials who assist in managing 
the affairs of the parish. 

Seat of Parish Government. In every parish 
there is what is known as the parish seat, in 
other States the county seat, where is located 
the courthouse and jail; where the Police 
Jury meets and the other officials, such as 
the sheriff, clerk of court, assessors, and 
superintendent of schools, have their offices. 
This forms a nucleus for a settlement, and in 
most cases, prosperous towns have thus been 
developed. 

Commission Government. In 1914, the 
Legislature passed a bill allowing the parishes 
to change their government from that by the 
police jury to the commission form. According 
to this plan, three commissioners are elected at 
large; these commissioners replace the police 
jury, board of health, and assessors; they have 
charge of public buildings, sanitation, care of 
paupers, construction of roads, bridges, fences; 
the finances and assessment of the parish are 
under their control, as are all parish employees. 
The three characteristics of commission govern- 
ment, recall, initiative, and referendum, are 
provided for; by the recall, the electors may re- 
move a commissioner from office and replace 
him; by the initiative, the electors may have or- 
dinances and regulations passed; and by the 
referendum, the electors may compel the com- 
missioners to submit a measure to the vote of 
the electors before putting it in force. This 
plan of government abolishes the division of a 
parish into wards. 



THE TOWN AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. 



Municipal Corporations. When a hamlet or 
unincorporated village has a population of at 
least 250, on two-thirds of the electors petition- 
ing the Governor to declare it an incorporated 
village, and he having verified the facts given 
in the petition, he must declare it incorporated 

as the village of , and appoint the first 

officials, but, thereafter, they are elected. The 
Governor must declare a village to be a town 
whenever the local authorities inform him that 



its population is or exceeds 1,000, or a city when 
the population is or exceeds 5,000. 

Officials. In municipalities having a popu- 
lation of less than 200,000, the government is 
formed by the State and is of an aldermanic 
character; the governing body is composed of 
a mayor, aldermen, marshal, tax collector, and 
street commissioner. The number of aldermen 
varies according to whether the municipality 
is a village, in which case there are three; a 



VIII. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK, 



town, five; or a city, no1 less than five nor more 
than nine. The voters elect the mayor, alder- 
men, and marshal; the aldermen appoint the 

other officials. 

Powers and Duties of Municipal Officials. 
The management of the municipality devolves 
upon the mayor and aldermen, who enact ordi- 
nances for its governance, and improvem 
levy and collect taxes. In towns, their powei 
exceeds that in villages; in towns, they way 



open and maintain hospitals, have a system of 
street lighting, fire department, etc. With an 
increase in size, additional powers are obtained. 
The mayor is chief executive and, in munici- 
palities of a population less than 5,000, judge 
in a court for cases of violations of the town 
ordinances. The marshal is the constable and 
chief of police. The tax collector collects the 
taxes. The street commissioner has to see that 
all alleys, streets, and roads are kept in good 
condition. 



TAXATION. 



Purpose. Taxes are levied for the support 
of the State Government and its institutions, 
the education of the children, preservation of 
public health, payment of interest and .principal 
of the public debt, suppression of insurrection, 
repelling invasion, or defense of the State in 
time of war, providing- pensions for indigent 
Confederate soldiers and sailors and their 
widows, establishing markers or monuments 
commemorative of the services of Louisiana 
soldiers on such fields, maintenance of a me- 
morial hall in New ( Irleans for the collection 
and preservation of relics and memorials of the 
late Civil War. and for levee purposes. 

Kinds of Taxes. (1) The poll tax is an an- 
nual tax of one dollar per year payable by all 
male inhabitants between the age of twenty-one 
and sixty years; this tax must lie paid in order 
to vote, and property holders may be forced to 
pay it; the funds collected by this measure are 
given to the support of the public schools in 
the parish within which the collection is made. 
(2) The property tax to lie levied on the 1919 
assessment will not exceed 4 mills. This 
includes the ] ' 2 mills tax for the public schools 
of the State, the Confederate Veteran tax, and 
the Good Eoads tax. The remainder of the 
millage will be for the other expenses of the 
State government. Several fiscal amendments 
were adopted in 1918 with a view to having a 
100% assessment on property for State pur- 
poses of taxation, but a much smaller rate of 
taxation than heretofore. This shows Louisiana 
to be a rich state with a low tax rate. (3) The 
license tax is a tax on trades, professions, voca- 
tions, and calling's. (4) The inheritance tax is 



a tax on inheritances, legacies and donations; 
no inheritance or donation of less than $10,000 
to ancestors or descendants may be taxed, and 
when over that amount may not lie taxed for 
more than three per cent; collateral inheritance 
or donation to strangers may not lie taxed for 
more than ten per cent; if the donation be to an 
educational, charitable, or religious institution, 
it is exempt from this tax. (5) The levee tax is 
levied by the Levee Board in each levee district. 
This tax varies from year to year. 

Exemptions. Clerks, laborers, clergymen, 
school teachers, persons engaged in mechanical, 
agricultural, and horticultural pursuits, and 
manufacturers, except those of distilled alco- 
holic or malt liquors, tobacco, cigars, and cotton 
seed oil, are exempt from paying a license tax. 
No public property, nor property used for re- 
ligious, educational, or charitable purposes, is 
taxed; neither is household furniture valued at 
$500, or less. The Constitution grants exemp- 
tion from taxation to many corporations, bonds, 
etc., under certain conditions. See Constitu- 
tion of 1913, Article 230. 

Sheriff's Sales. If taxes are not paid before 
l lie expiration of the year in which they fall 
due. the collector shall, after giving due notice 
to the delinquent, advertise for sale the prop- 
erty on which the taxes are due, and on the day 
of sale shall sell such part of the property as 
the debtor shall point out, for the amount of 
the taxes, interest, and costs; if the tax debtor 
fails to point out sufficient property, the tax 
collector shall sell the least quantity of the 
property which any one will purchase for the 
taxes, interest, and costs. The owner may re- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



IX. 



deem the property within the space of one year 
1>\ paying the price given, including rusts and 
twenty per cent thereon. 

State Board of Affairs. An amendment to 
the State Constitution was adopted in 1016 pro- 
viding for a State Board of Affairs to take the 
place of the State Board of Appraisers and the 
State Board of Equalization. 

The new Board is composed of three mem 
bers appointed by the Governor. They began 
Jan. 1, 1917, the first three appointed to serve 



for two, four and six years, respectively. Their 
successors are to serve six years. 

Their duty is to assess uniformly all the tax- 
able property throughout the State not to ex- 
ceed its cash value. 

The Constitution by this act provides that 
the percentage of the actual cash valuation of 
the property assessed in any parish, for other 
than State purposes, shall not fall below twenty- 
five per eent of the actual cash valuation as 
fixed by the Hoard for State purposes. 



VARIOUS STATE BOARDS. 



Boards in General. The State has created 
several hoards or commissions for the manage- 
ment of some special affairs of the State, and 
these boards form an important part of the 
machinery of the State government. 

Board of Public Education. This Board is 
composed of the Governor, Attorney-General, 
State Superintendent of Education, and one 
member from each Congressional District, ap- 
pointed by the Governor. The Board of 
Education has to appoint the chairman of the 
State committee for examining teachers; elects 
a State Institute Conductor, who has general 
charge of summer schools and institutes; pre- 
scribes standards for approved high schools, 
and makes appropriation to each high school of 
from $400 to $500 a year; makes recommenda- 
tions to the parish board, gives special aid to 
departments of agriculture and home economics 
of the public schools, and provides courses of 
study for the different public schools. 

Louisiana State Board of Agriculture and 
Immigration. This Board consists of a member 
from each Congressional District, appointed by 
the Governor with the advice ami consent of the 
Senate, from men engaged in the leading agri- 
cultural interests of the State: these members 
hold office for six years, or until their successors 
are appointed. The Governor, Commissioner 
of Agriculture and Immigration, President of 
the Louisiana State University and Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College, the Vice Presi- 
dent of the Board of Supervisors of the same 
institution, and the Director of the State experi- 
mental stations, are ex-officio members of this 



Board. The members of this Board receive no 
compensation, only their expenses when attend- 
ing meetings. This Board has control and 
direction of all State agricultural organizations 
and State Farmers' Institutes, and adopts 
measures to secure proper immigration. It 
encourages State, district, and parish fairs and 
local agricultural organizations; maintains 
effective control of the manufacture and sale 
in this State of fertilizers and Paris Green, and 
suppresses adulteration and fraud therein. It 
has to perform other duties when assigned by 
the Genera] Assembly. 

Board of Charities and Corrections, Six 
members, appointed by the Governor for six 
years, form this board, of which the Governor 
is ex-officio chairman. They receive no com- 
pensation, but the secretary, whom they 
appoint, receives a salary fixed by the General 
Assembly. The board does not possess any 
administrative or executive powers, merely 
visitorial. It is their duty to visit all chari- 
table, correctional, or reformatory institutions, 
whether public or private, and make an annual 
report on their condition to the Governor and 
General Assembly. 

Board of Liquidation of the State Debt. The 
State's bonded debt was $11,108,300 on January 
1, 1D14. The State has created a special board 
to assume control of this debt, pay off the in- 
terest and principal. 

Board of Commissioners of the Port of New 
Orleans. The Governor appoints the members 
of this board, five in number, has the power to 



X. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



remove them and fill all vacancies. The Com- 
missioners have control of the bond issne for 
improving the water front, constructing 
wharves, sheds, roadways, etc. They must 
furnish the Governor with an annual detailed 
account of the reqeipt and expenditures, and 
this report must be published once in the official 
journal of the city of New Orleans. 

The Board of State Engineers. The Board 
of State Engineers was created by Act 33, ap 
proved February 10, 1870. The duties of the 
Board, as defined by this Act, are to make sur- 
veys of water courses, public works and levees 
of the State; to "report to the Governor of the 
State the improvements necessary and levees to 
be constructed, which are of prime importance 
to the State at large"; to furnish estimates and 
specifications for the work so required; to 
examine and measure the work recommended 
by the Board, and done under contracts made 
by the State, and to specify the amount of pay- 
ments due for the work thus executed. 

Board of Health. The State Board of Health 
is composed of representative physicians from 
different parts of the State. It is the duty of 
this board to protect the people from the sale 
of injurious, or adulterated drugs, foods, and 
drinks, and against any and all adulterations 
of the general necessaries of life. See Chapter V. 

A Department of Conservation has been 
established for the purpose of preserving the 



natural resources of the State. There is now 
one commissioner at the head of it. It is his 
duty to inspect and have improved all State 
reservation lands and waters; he must see that 
the State's natural wealth is properly used and 
not ruthlessly destroyed; he must find out what 
are the natural resources of the State and how 
they may be best developed. The reforesting of 
lands whose timber has been used, is one of the 
works undertaken by the department. The care 
and enlargement of the State's great oyster 
beds, falls within the province of the depart- 
ment. 

Boards of Commissioners of the Levee Dis- 
tricts. The regularly incorporated Levee 
Districts in the State number, at this date, 
seventeen. All these Districts possess corporate 
powers, exercised under the administration of 
Boards of Commissioners, varying in number 
from three to nine; and all, except the Orleans 
Levee District, are empowered to levy ad 
valorem taxes for levee purposes, not exceeding 
the constitutional limit of five mills on the 
dollar. Up to the year 1913, the Orleans Levee 
District was restricted to an ad valorem tax 
of one mill on the dollar. However, by Act No. 
251 of the General Assembly of the State, 
Session of 1912, the power to levy and collect an 
additional ad valorem tax of two mills on the 
dollar, or three mills in all, was authorized and 
provided for, commencing on January 1, 1913, 
and to maintain for a period of eight years. 



EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS SUPPORTED BY THE STATE. 



The State supports five large educational 
institutions, namely: the State University at 
Baton Rouge, the State Normal at Natchitoches, 
the two industrial schools at Ruston and 
Lafayette, Southern University for the educa- 



tion of persons of color, and several charitable 
institutions, the two Insane Asylums, at, 
respectively Pineville and Jackson, the schools 
for the deaf and blind, Charity Hospital, and 
other public charity institutions conducted 
under State authority. 



SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS. 



Electors. In Louisiana, electors are males 
over twenty-one years of age, who possess the 
following qualifications : 

Residential. He must have been a resident 
of the State for two years, of the parish one 



year, and of the precinct six months preceding 
the election; removal from a precinct, how- 
ever, does not operate against a person until 
six months thereafter. 

Educational. He must be able to write his 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK. 



XI. 



application for registration in English or in his 
own tongue or, if prevented from so doing by 
a physical disability, the registration officer or 
deputy may write it at his dictation, under his 
oath attesting his disability. 

Property Qualification. The possession of 
property assessed at $300 on which all taxes are 
paid, serves in place of the educational quali- 
fication. 

Poll Tax Qualification. Men between the 
ages of twenty-one and sixty years must pay a 
poll tax of a dollar a year, which tax is used 
to help support the public schools. No man 
may vote at any election who has not paid his 
poll tax for the two years preceding the year in 
which he offers to vote; this tax must be paid 
on or before December 31st of each year. "Any 
person who shall pay the poll tax of another 
or advance him the money for that purpose in 
order to influence his vote, is guilty of bribery 
and punishable accordingly." 

Voting of Taxpayers in Political Sub- 
divisions. In order to vote as taxpayers, the 
only qualifications are those of age and resi- 
dence; women of age who are taxpayers, have 
the right to vote in such elections either in 
person or by an agent authorized in writing. 
No other person may vote at such elections 
unless they be registered voters. 

Debarment from Voting. "Persons con- 
victed of any crime punishable by imprisonment 
in the penitentiary and who have not had the 
right of suffrage restored to them, inmates of 
any charitable institution except the Soldiers' 
Home, those confined in a public prison, inter- 
dicted persons, and persons notoriously insane 
or idiotic, whether interdicted or not," are not 
allowed to vote, hold any office or appointment 
of honor; trust, or profit in Louisiana. 



Manner and Time of Voting. Voting is by 
ballot except "in elections by persons in a rep- 
resentative capacity," when the vote is' viva- 
voce. The general State election is held once 
every four years on the Tuesday following the 
third Monday in April. The next State election 
will be held in 1920 and every four years there- 
after. 

Gain and Loss of Residence. Persons in the 
employ of the State or United States, whether 
civil or military, or "engaged in the navi- 
gation of the waters of the State, or United 
States, or of the high seas, or while a student 
at an institution of learning," are not 
considered to have gained a residence be- 
cause of their presence, nor lost it because of 
their absence. 

The Ballot. Ballots are furnished by the 
State for the general State elections. Ballots 
are so printed that an elector may vote a 
straight party ticket or vote individually. The 
ballots are cast in secret. 

Voting. No registration may take place 
within thirty days preceding an election. A 
man desiring to vote, must register as an elector 
and present his registration papers and two poll 
tax receipts for the two years previous to the 
year of the election in which he offers to vote. 

TOPICS: Bill of Rights; Legislative Department; Execu- 
tive Department; Judicial Department; Various 
Officials; Some General Provisions of the Constitu- 
tion; The Parish as a Unit of Government; The 
Town as a Unit of Government; The Town as a Unit 
of Government; Taxation; Various Boards; Support 
Given to Educational and Charitable Public Institu- 
tions; Suffrage and Elections. 

REFERENCES: Constitutions of 1913 and 1898 and 
amendments adopted in 1916 and 1919; J. R- 
Ficklen, History and Government of Louisiana. 




SEAL OP STATE OF LOUISIANA. 



GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA. 



GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 

Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'lberville 1699-1700 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1701-1713 

Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac , 1713-1716 

De 1'Epinay (Christian name unrecorded) 1717-1718 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1718-1724 

Pierre Dugue de Boisbriant (ad interim) 1724 

Perrier (Christian name unrecorded) 172 ",-173 2 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1733-1743 

Pierre Francois, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal 1743-1752 

Louis Billouart, Baron de Kerlerec 1753-1763 

D'Abadie (Christian name unrecorded) _ 1763-1765 

Aubry 1765-1766 

GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER SPANISH RULE. 

Antonio de Ulloa 1766-1768 

Alexander, Count O'Reilly 1768-1769 

Louis de Unzaga y Amerzaga 1769-1776 

Bernardo de Galvez y Gallardo 1777-1785 

Estevan Rodriquez Miro = 1785-1791 

Francisco Louis Hortes, Baron de Carondelet 1792-1797 

Gayosa de Lemos ..-, 1797-1799 

Francisco de Bouligny 1799 

Sebastian, Marquis de Casa Calvo y O'Farril 1799-1801 

Juan Manuel de Salcedo : 1801-1803 

GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS. 

William Charles Cole Claiborne 1804-1812 

GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF LOUISIANA. 

William Charles Cole Claiborne 1812-1816 

Jacques P. Villere 1816-1S20 

Thomas Boiling Robertson (resigned) 1820-1824 

H. S. Thibodeaux, President o£ the Senate (Acting Governor) 1824 

Henry Johnson 1824-1828 

Pierre Derbigny (died in office) 1S2S-1829 

A. Beauvais, President of the Senate (Acting Governor).. 1S29-1830 

Jacques Dupre, 1S30 

Andre Bienvenu Roman 1831-1835 

Edward Douglas White 1835-1839 

Andre Bienvenu Roman 1839-1843 

Alexander Mouton '. 1843-1846' 

Isaac Johnson 1846-1850 

Joseph W. Walker 1S50-1S53 

Paul Octave Hebert 1853-1856 

Robert Charles Wickliffe 1856-1860 

Thomas Overton Moore 1860-1864 

General George F. Shepley (Military Governor) 1S62-1864 

Henry Watkins Allen (under Confederate government) 1864-1S65 

Michael Hahn (under Federal government) 1864-1865 

James Madison Wells, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1864-1866 

James Madison Wells : 1866-1867 

Benjamin F. Flanders (under military authority) 1867-1S68 

Joshua Baker (under military authority) 186S 

Henry Clay Warmoth 1868-1873 

John McEnery (counted out by the Returning Board) 1873 

Peter B. S. Pinchback, Lieutenant Governor (Acting Governor) 1873 

William Pitt Kellogg, Governor de facto 1873-1877 

Francis T. Nieholls 1877-1880 

Louis Alfred Wiltz (died in office) 1880-1881 

S. Douglas McEnery, Lieutenant Governor (succeeded Wiltz as Governor) 1881-1884 

S. Douglas McEnerv : 1884-1888 

Francis T. Nieholls 188S-1892 

Murphy J. Foster 1892-1900 

William Wright Heard 1900-1904 

Newton Crain Blanchard 1904-1908 

Jared Y. Sanders 1908-1912 

Luther E..Hall 1912-1916 

Ruffin G. Pleasant 1916- 



XIII. 



INDEX. 



Abattoir Companies, 98. 

Abbadie, D', 14. * 

Abraham, 85. 

Adams. President John, 18. 

Adulteration, 51. 

Affairs, State Board of, IX. 

Africa, mention of, 20; 74; 131. 

Agriculture and Immigration, State Board of, IX. 

Alabama, State, mention of, 7; 75; 78; 90; 98. 

Algiers, 33; 38; Branch Library, 122. 

Allard. Louis, 150. 

Alleghanies, mention of, 10; 12; IS; 70; River, 13. 

Alliance Franchise, 125. 

All Saints' Day, 134. 

Almonaster y Roxas, Don, 16; 17; 106; Widow of, 135. 

Alphand, engineer, 145. 

America, mention of, 22; 59; 61; 78; 102; City planning 
in, 145. 

American Revolution, 16; 130. 

American Domination in Louisiana, 23-42; Folk Lore Soci- 
ety, 127; Influence on building of New Orleans, 147; 
Missionary Association, 121; Rule. Ill; Sugar Refin- 
ery, 68; 82; 90. 

Americans, mention of, 18; 20; 23; 28; 41; 111; 130. 

Amusements in New Orleans 1800, 21. 

Animals of Louisiana, 97. 

Annunciation Square, 151. 

Anse la Butte, 89. 

Architecture; See Chapter XVI., 145-150. 

Argentina, mention of, 75. 

Arizona, mention of, 90. 

Ark, The, mention of, 85. 

Arkansas River, mention of 7; 9; State of, 30; 74; 7S; 89; 
98. 

Art, Newcomb School of, 119. 

Arts and Sciences, College of, 118. 

Asia, mention of, 61; 74; 83; 94; 130. 

Asiatics, mention of, 131. 

Asphalt, 153. 

Assessment, 142-143. 

Assessors, Board of, 143. 

Association of Army of Tennessee, mention of, 108. 

Association of Army of Virginia, mention of, 108. 

Association of Commerce, 149. 

Asylums, 106-108. 

Athenaeum, 132. 

Athene Louisianais, 125; 127. 

Athens, 145. 

Atlanta, 90. 

Atlanteans, 132. 

Atlantic Ocean, 13; Trade, IS; Cable Companies, 61; Coast, 
5; 26; 30; Ports, 86. 

Attakapas 'Cadians, 20. 

Attendance, Department of. 116. 

Attorney-General, 100; 101; V.; IX. 



Aubry, 14. 

Auditor, State, III. 

Audubon Park, mention of, 38; 46; 82; US; 119; 150; 151; 

Street, mention of. 127. 
Augusta, Ga., mention of, 128. 
Australia, mention of, 61; 76. 
Austria, mention of, 75; People of, 131. 
Auxiliary Sanitary Association, 50. 
Avery's Island, 88. 
Avoyelles Parish, 128. 
Aztecs, mention of, 59. 

Babylon, mention of, 145. 

Bacteriological Department. 54. 

Balboa, C. Z., 154. 

Balize, mention of, 10; 14. 

Ballot, 142; XI. 

Baltimore, mention of, 30; 107; 133; 134; 150. 

Bananas, 69; 74. 

Banks, Royal Bank of France, 104 ; Louisiana, 104 ; Louisi- 
ana Planters', 104; Gas Company, 104; Canal, 71; 
104; Carrollton, 104; Commercial, 104; Mechanics and 
Traders', 104; Whitney-Central, 104; Hibernia, 104. 

Banking, 104. 

Banks, General, 104. 

Bar Association, Louisiana, American, 102. 

Barataria Bay, mention of, 25; Bayou, 40; 41; 96. 

Baratarian Pirates, 25; 101. 

Barge Line, 71. 

Baronne. Street, mention of, 63; 106. 

Barracks, 17; 63. 

Barret, actor, 37. 

Barton, Dr., mention of, 103. 

Bastille, mention of, 14; 135. 

Baton Rouge, mention of, 16; 117; 121; 124; I. 

Battle of New Orleans, 27; 28; 101; Centennial Celebration 
of, 41. 

Batture, mention of, 2. 

Bayou Road, mention of, 21: 24; 63. 

Beale, Captain, 133. 

Beaubois, Father, mention of, 109. 

Beaumont, mention of, 89. 

Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., 76; Square (Congo), 18; School, 
114. 

Beauty of Right Living, 156. 

Beer, Manufacture of. !>2. 

Belgian Block. 153. 

Belgium, mention of. 75; People of, 131. 

Bell. Alexander Graham, mention of. 62. 

Belle Isle, mention of. 88. 

Bench and Bar, 100-1 ml'. 

Benjamin. Judafa I'.. 102. 

Bienvenue; Bayou, mention of, 26; 56. 

Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne de. 9; 10; 11; 12; 109; 
146; House of, 108; Street, 12; 146. 



XIV. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Bill of Rights, I. 

Biloxi, mention of, 9; Bay, 9. 

Bingen, mention of, 135. 

Birds, 97; 152. 

Birmingham, mention of, 73; 90. 

Black Code, 11. 

Blanc, Archbishop, 119. 

Boards: — Agriculture and Immigration, IX.; Charities and 
Corrections, IX.; Civil Service, Commissioners of, 
140-141; Conservation Commission, 86; 97; X.; Health, 
City; 53-55; 98; Health, State; 51-52; 98; X.; Liquida- 
tion of City Debt, 39; Liquidation of State Debt, IX.; 
Orleans Levee, 3; 39; 141; Public Education, State, 
113; 127; IX.; Public Libraries, City, 141; Public 
School Directors, New Orleans, 113; 141; Sewerage 
and Water, 43-46. 

Boll-weevil, 80. 

Booth, actor, mention of, 37. 

Boots, Manufacture of, 91. 

Bore, Etienne de, 18; 81; 125; 151. 

Borgne, Lake, mention of, 1; 2; 9; 26; 44; 72. 

Boston, mention of, 30; 34; 72; 88; 130; 146; 149; Club, 
132. 

Bourbon Street, mention of. 21. 

Bragg, General, mention of, 103. 

Branch Libraries, 122. 

Brass Works, 91. 

Brazil, mention of, 75. 

Brennan, Joseph, 126. 

Brittany, mention of, 124. 

Brooklyn, 118; Navy Hospital, 95. 

Bubonic Plague, 48; 49. '_ 

Buffalo, mention of, 30. 

Building of New Orleans, 146-150. 

Building Ornamentation (New Orleans), 147-148. 

Buildings of Note, 148. 

Buras, Florentine, 95. 

Burgundy, Fort, mention «of. IS. 

Burke, W. B., 119. 

Burr, Aaron, Conspiracy of, 24. 

Butler, General B. F., 37; 104; 112. 

Cabildo, 15; 17; 19; 20; 22; 106; 123; 147. 

Cable. George W., 128. 

Caddo Parish, 89. 

Cadillac. Governor, 9. 

"Ca Ira," mention of, 17. 

Calcasieu Parish, 86. 

Caldwell, James H., 37; Mrs. J. H. Caldwell, 37; Parish, 86. 

California, mention of, 89; 152. 

Calliope Street, mention of, 68; 122. 

Campeachy, mention of, 15. 

Camp Nicholls, 108. 

Camp Street, mention of, 24; 62. 

Canaan, mention of, 85. 

Canada, mention of, 8; 13; 25. 

Canadians, 12; 20. 

Canal Bank and Trust Company, 104. 

Canals, Carondelet, 17; 43; 47; 71; Intercoastal, 72; Lake 

to River, 72; New Basin, 4; 71. 
Canal Street, mention of, 3; 18; 39; 63; 68; 71; 106; 114; 

118; 121; 130; 132; 147; 149; Branch Library, 122. 
Canal Zone, mention of, 74; 154. 



Canaries, mention of, 20. 

Canning Factories, 92. 

Canonge, L. Placide, 125. 

Canova artist, mention of, 35. 

Cape Breton Island, mention of. 14. 

Capital at New Orleans, mention of, 10. 

Capture of New Orleans, 38. 

Capuchins, mention of, 12; 16; 20; 109. 

Cargo, 65; 69. 

Car Lines, Street, 63-64. 

Carnegie, Andrew, mention of. 122; 141. 

Carnival, 131-133. 

Carondelet, Baron de, 16; 18; 36; 43; 47; 154; Canal. 17; 

43; 47; 71; Fortifications, 17; Street, 147. 
Carolina, Schooner, mention of, 27. 
Carpet Baggers, 38; 113. 
Carroll, General, mention of, 26. 
Carrollton, 3; 18; 38; Avenue, 149; Bank, 104; Bend, 2; 3; 

Railroad, 39; 63. 
Casa Calvo, Marquis de, 22; 24. 
Casket Girls, 11. 
Catalonians. mention of, 20. 

Cathedral, St. Louis, mention of, 19; 20; 28; 109; 123; 147. 
Cecil, Father, 109. 
Cemeteries, 63. 

Cenas, Blaise, 59; Doctor, 103. 

Centennial Celebration, Battle of New Orleans. 41. 
Central American Countries, mention of, 1; 88; 90; 94. 
Central States, mention of, 74. 
Chaise, de la, mention of, 102. 
Chaland, Bayou, mention of. 97. 
Chaldea. mention of, 85. 
Chalmette Sugar Refinery, 82. 
Changes in Shape of New Orleans, 146. 
Charitable Institutions, 106-10S. 
Charities and Corrections, State Board of, IX. 
Charity Hospital, 13; 16; 19; 48; 56; 106; X. 
Charity, Sisters of, 56; 107. 
Charivari, 135. 
Charles III., mention of, 14. 
Charles River, mention of, 146. 
Charleston, S. C, mention of, 39; 83; 125; 149. 
Charlevoix. Pere, 10. 
Charter of New Orleans, 138; 144. 
Chartres Street, mention of. 12; 16; 20; 21; 110. 
Cheerfulness, virtue of, 154. 
Chef Menteur, mention of, 40. 
Cherry Valley, mention of. 117. 
Chicago, mention of, 61; 65; 73; 130; 146. 
Chickasaws, War with, 12. 
Chief Justice of Louisiana, II. ; IV. 
China, mention of, 76; 92; 94; 128. 
Chinese, mention of, 59; 96; 131. 
Choctaws, mention of, 25; 26; 125. 
Cholera, Asiatic, mention of, 48; 49. 
Christian Brothers' College, 120. 
Cincinnati, mention of, 127. 
City Beautiful, 145-156. 
City Boards, 140-141. 
City Building, 145-148. 
City Government, 137-144. 
City Hall, 132; 142; 148. 
City Library, 122. 



INT 'N— Continued. 



XV. 



155. 



128. 



132. 
28. 



City Limits, 1. 

City Park. 2; 40; 63; 150. 

City Planning in America, 145. 

City Railroad Company, 63. 

Citrus Fruits, 94-95. 

Civic Interest, 135-136; 156. 

Civic Virtues, 154-156. 

Civil Code, 100. 

Civil Law, 100. 

Civil Service Commission, 127; 140-141. 

Civil War, mention of, 37; 112. 

Claiborne, W. C. C, 23; 24; 25; 26; 28; 50; 104. 

Clay, Henry, 36. 

Cleaning, City, 50. 

Cleanliness, Virtue of, 

"Clearing," 77. 

Clemens (Mark Twain), 

Cleveland, 146. 

Climate, 4-5. 

Clio Street, mention of, 

Cochrane, Admiral, 26; 

Code Napoleon, 100. 

Coffee, General, 26; Import. 74; 75. 

Colbert. Minister, 8. 

Coliseum Place, 151. 

Collector of Sustoms, 76. 

College of Orleans, 111-112. 

Colon, mention of, 74. 

Colonial Education, 109-111. 

Columbian Exposition, mention of, 146. 

Commerce, 18; 23; 29; 34. 

Commercial Bank, 45; 104. 

Commercial Library, 121. 

Commercial Review of New Orleans, 125. 

Commissioners of Port of New Orleans, Board of, 39; 67; 

79; IX. 
Commission Form of Government. 41; in State, VII. 
Commission Plan of City Government, 139-140; in New 

Orleans, 139; 140; Distinctive Features of, 144. 
Commissions Given by State. IV. 
Common Law, English, 100; 116. 
Common Street, mention of. 23; 24; 106. 
Communication, Systems of, 59-64. 
Comus, Krewe of, 132. 

Company of The West or of Indies, 9; 12. 
Confederate Memorial Hall, 123; Veterans, 108. 
Confederacy, 37; Note of, 104. 
Conservation Commission, 86; 97; X. 
Conspiracy of October, 176S, 15. 
Constables, VI. 

Constitution of Louisiana, 25; 67; 144. 
Contagion, 53. 
Convents, 120. 
Convicts, VI. 
Cook, Bayou, 97. 
Cooke, Sir William, 61. 
Cooper, actor, 37. 
Copenhagen mention of, 88. 
Copper Works, 91. 
Corn, 80. 
Coroners, V. 



Cotton: Introduced,. 13; Outlook in 1812, 25; Centennial 
Exposition, 39; 40; 62; 151; Trade in, 74; Cultivation 
of, 78-80; Exchange, 7S; Futures, 79; Warehouse, 79; 
Manufacture of, 79; 90-91. 

Council, Commission. 53; 139; 140. 

Council Elections, 141-142. 

Courage, Virtue of, 155. 

Courmant, Felix de, 125. 

Courtesy, Virtue of, 155. 

Court of Appeals: Jurisdiction, Judges, Circuits, IV. 

Credit System in Business, 30. 

Creek (Indians), 25. 

Creoles, 20; 21; 24; 26; 28; 127; 128; 130; 131. 

Creosoted Wood Block, 151. 

Crevasses, 3. 

Criminal Courthouse, 39; 131. 

Crozat, Anthony, 9. 

Cuba, mention of, 7; 15; 24; 48; Trade with, 74. 

Cula-Be, 124. 

Cumberland River, 24; Telephone and Telegraph Co, 62. 

Curators of State Museum, Board of, 127. 

Currency, Colonial 13. 

Customhouse, 17; 76; Street, 121. 

Customs, 131-135. 

Customs Officers, 77. 

Cypress, 85. 

Dallas, mention of, 90. 

Dauphine Street, mention of, 12: 63. 

Davis, Mrs. Mollie E. Moore, 126; 128. 

Davy, Humphrey, 60. 

De Bow, James D. B., 125; Review, 125. 

De Launey, mention of, 135. 

De 1'Epinay, 9. 

Delery, Dr. C, 125. 

Delgado, Isaac, 151; Art Museum, 150: Central Trades 

School for Boys, 116. 
"Delta," The, 126. 
Denegre Building, mention of, 62. 
Denmark, people of, 131. 
Departmental Teaching, 113. 
Departments of City Government, 137-144. 
Departments of State Government. I. -VI. 
De Soto, Hernando, 7; Parish. 89. 
Destitute Boys, Asylum of, 108. 
Dimitry, Alexander, 112; Charles, 127. 
Distribution of Powers of City Government, 140. 
District Attorney, VT. 
District Courts: Jurisdiction, number of judges, jury. 

sessions, IV.-V. 
Districts: First, 11; Second (Municipality), 33; Third, 3: 

Fourth, 38; Fifth, 38; Sixth, 38; 39; Seventh, 38. 
Dock Board, 39; 67; 69; IX. 
Domestic Art, 115. 
Domestic Science, 115. 
Dominican Convent, 120. 
Drainage, 40; 43; 46; 47; 50. 
Drama, English. 126; French, 124-125. 
Drugs, Habit-forming. 51 : Laws. 51. 
Dryades Street, 106; 131. 
Dry Dock, 67. 
Dublin, mention of, 126. 
Dubreuil, mention of, 13. 



XVI. 



lis DEX— Continued. 



Duelling in 1800, 21. 
Dumaine Street, 21; 120. 
Duquesne, Fort, mention of, 13. 

Eads, Captain James B., 39; 66. 

Early French and Spanish Influence on Architecture, 147. 

East Indian Is., 76. 

Easton, Warren, 113. 

Ebony, 91. 

Edgerly, 89. 

Edison, Thomas, mention of, 61. 

Education, 34; 109; 121. 

Educational and Charitable Institutions, State, X. 

Egypt, mention of, 85. 

Elections, City, 141-142; State, X-XI. 

Electors, City, Qualifications of, 142; State, Qualifications 

of, X.-XI. 
Elementary Schools, 113. 
Elkin Club, mention of, 36. 
El Paso, 61. 

Elysian Fields, mention of, 32. 
Emancipation Proclamation, mention of, 113. 
Encyclopedia Britannica. mention of, 126; of Trade and 

Commerce of the United States. 126. 
England, mention of, 13; 14; 15; 25; 75; 84; 100; 101; 127. 
English at Battle of New Orleans, 26-2S. 
English Literature of New Orleans, 125-129. 
English Turn, 49. 
"Entering" (port), 77. 
Epidemics, 47-49; 134. 
Episcopal Home, 108. 
Erie, Lake, mention of, 30. 
Esplanade Avenue, mention of, 18; 39; 63; 151; Girls' 

High School, 114. 
Essence of Oranges, 95. 
Euphrates River, mention of, 145. 
Europe, mention of, 8 ; 9; 13; IS; 74; 76; 92; 103; 110; 130; 

131; People of, 131. 
Evangeline Parish, mention of, 84. 
Evening Schools, 114. 
Executive Department, State, III. 
Exports, 73-76. 

Expenditure for Paving, 152-154. 
Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital, 57. 

Faraday, Michael, mention of, 60. 

Farragut, Admiral, mention of, 37. 

Faubourg, Ste. Marie 29; 33; 111; 130. 

Federal Army, 112. 

Federal Reserve Bank, 41. 

Field, Cyrus, mention of, 61. 

Filter Plant. 45-46. 

Finances, 41. 

Finlay. Dr. Carlos, mention of, 48. 

Fire Department, 39. 

Fish, 95-96. 

Fisk Library, 121. 

Floods, 3. 

Flora of New Orleans. 151 ; 152. 

Florida, mention of, 13; 17; 25; 30; 96; 152. 

Food and Drug Laws and Regulations, 51. 

Food Inspection, 51-52. 

Foodstuffs, 93-99. 



Forests of Louisiana, 86. 

Forrest, Edwin, actor, 37. 

Fortier, Professor Alcee, 127. 

Foucher, Pierre, mention of, 151. 

Fourth French and Indian War, 13. 

France, At Close of Seventeenth Century, 7-S; mention of, 

11; 12; 13; 14; 21; 22; 75; S6; 100; 109; 110; 117; 

125; 127; 131; 135. 
Francis T. Nicholls Industrial School, 116. 
Frankfort, 61. 

Franklin. Benjamin, mention of, 59; 61. 
Frasch, Herman, 86; System of, S6. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 113. 
French, B. F., mention of, 121. 
French, Cities, 147; Language, 111; 124; Literature, 124; 

Market, 17; 20; Opera House, 132-133; Place, 150; 

Refugees, 106; Settlers, 12; 13; 20; 24; 47. 
Frenchmen's Day, 135. 
Freret Street, mention of, 106. 
Fruits, 94-95. 

Fulton, Robert, mention of, 25. . 
Furbearing Animals, 98. 

Gallier, Architect, 148. 

Galveston, mention of, 61; 78. 

Galvez. Bernado, 16; 111; 124. 

Gambling, VI. 

Garbage, Removal of, 56. 

Garden Cities of England, 145. 

Gas, 89; Company Bank. 104. 

Gayarre, Charles, 91; 125; 126; 151. 

Gazette, The, 21. 

General Assembly, Louisiana, 125; 13S; I.-II. 

Gentilly Terrace, mention' of. 2; 40; Road, 21; 108. 

George V., King of England, mention of, 41. 

Georgia, mention of. 7; 78. 

Germans, mention of, 9; 12; 20; 131; Catholics, 134; Coast, 
11; 20; 25. 

Gibbs, General, mention of, 28. 

Gibson Hall, 118. 

Girod Street, mention of, 24. 

"Gombo." 20. 

Gopher Wood, mention of, 85. 

Government of Louisiana. 14; 15; 23; Supplement. 

Government of New Orleans. 23-41 ; Commission Form of, 
41; 139; 140. 

Governor of Louisiana, I., IT., III.; Election. Term, Eligi- 
bility, Salary, Duties and Powers of. III., VIII., IX. 

Grain Elevators, 69. 

Grand Coteau College, 119. 

Grand Duke Alexis, 132. 

Grant, Captain, 32; 132; General Ulysses S., 37. 

Gravier, 23; Street, 23; 62; 153. 

Gray. Elisha, mention of. 62. 

Great Britain, mention of, 18; 24; 28; 41. 

Great Fires of 178S and 1794, 16. 

Great Lakes, mention of. 5; 30. 

Great Southern Te'ephone and Telegraph Company, men- 
tion of, 62. 

Greece, mention of, 75; 85; People of. 131; 145. 

Grunewald Hotel, 148. 

Grymes, John R., 101. 

Gaudeloupe, mention of, 24. 



INDEX— Continued. 



XVII. 



Gulf of Mexico, mention of, 1; 4; 5; 7; 8; 30; 65; 66; 85; 

Coast, 5; 89; 95; 96; 101; Level, 2; Stream, 4. 
Gulfport, mention of, 85. 

Hachard, Sister, Madeleine, 12. 

Hahnemann School, 103. 

Hall, Oakey, mention of, 35. 

Harbor, 66-67. 

Harrison, Dr., mention of, 103. 

Harvey Canal, 40. 

Haughery, Margaret, 107. 

Haussmann, Baron, mention of, 145. 

Havana, mention of. 14; 15; 48; 84. 

Health Conditions, 47-58; City Board of, 53-55; 98; State 

Board of, 51-52; 98; X. 
Hearn, Lafcadio, 127. 

Hebrew Benevolent Association, mention of, 57. 
Hebrews, mention of, 108. 
Hempstead, mention of, 145. 
Hennen, Alfred, 101. 
Henry Clay Avenue, 57. 
Hibernia Bank, mention of, 104. 
High Temperature Destructor, 56. 
High School, 114. 
Holcombe, Dr. W. H., 103; 127. 
Holland, 3; 43; 75. 
Holy Cross College, 120. 
Homeopathic School, 103. 
Homes, 1815-1860, 34. 
Homestead Associations, 104. 
Honduras, mention of, 74. 
Honesty, Virtue of, 155. 
Hooke, Robert, mention of, 62. 
Horter and Fenner, mention of, 62. 
Hospice des Pauvres, 106. 
Hospitals, 56-58; 106. 
Hotel Dieu, 57. 
Houma, Indians, 10. 

House of Representatives, Louisiana, 24; I.; II. 
Houston, mention of, 90. 
Howard Association, 108; Charles, T., 123; Frank T., 123; 

Memorial Library, 123; Street, 106. 
Howe, W. M., 126; 127. 
Hungary, mention of, 135. 
Hungerford, Edward, 149. 
Hunt, Doctor, mention of, 103. 
Hutchinson Memorial, 118. 
Hyams, Mrs. Chapman, mention of, 151. 
Hygiene, Department of, 114-115. 

Iberville, Pierre le Moyne d', 8-9; 102. 

Ice, Manufacture of. 91. 

Ildefonso, Secret Treaty of, 14; 22. 

Illinois, mention of, 9; 75; 89; Central Railroad, 39; 67; 

70; 73; 76. 
Immaculate Conception, College of, 119. 
Immigrants, European, 33. 
Immigration Station, 40; 67; 92. 
Impeachment, II. 
Imports, 74-76. 

Incorporation of New Orleans, 24. 
India, mention of, 13; 76. 
Indiana, mention of, 75. 



Indianapolis, mention of, 73. 

Indian Medicine Men, 102. 

Industry, Virtue of, 155. 

Influence on Architecture of Available Building Material 

and Climate, 147. 
Influenza, 49. 
Initiative, 144. 
Inner Harbor, 72. 

Inspection, Sanitary, 51; of Food, 52; of Slaughtering, 98. 
Institutions for the Colored, 120-121. 
Insurance Companies, 104. 
Intercoastal Canal, 72. 
Inundations, Causes, 3; Crevasses, 3. 
Ireland, mention of, 126. 
Irish, mention of, 20; 24; 107; 131. 
Islinques, mention of, 20. 
Isolation Hospital, 57. 
Italians, mention of, 20. 
Italy, mention of, 74; 75. 

Jackson, Andrew, 25; 26; 27; 28; 41; 123; Avenue, men- 
tion of, 41; 10S; School, 114; Square, 20; 147; 150; 
151; City in Mississippi, 32. 

Jamison, Mrs. Cecijia Viets, 129. 

Japan, mention of, 76; 128. 

Japanese, mention of, §3; 131. 

Jean Lafitte, 25; 26; 88. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 1; 22; 24; City, 38; Parish, 1; 41; 90; 
91. 

Jefferson International Highway, 73. 

Jefferson's Island, mention of, 88. 

Jefferson-Plaquemines Drainage District, 40. 

Jenner, Dr., mention of, 47. 

Jennings Oil Fields, 89. 

Jesuits, 11; 13; 23; SI; 95; 109; 119-120. 

Jetties, 39; 65-66. 

Jewish Widows' and Orphans' Home, 108. 

Jews, mention of, 131. 

Johns Hopkins University, mention of, 127. 

Johnston, Col. William Preston, 117; 126; 127. 

Joliet, 7. 

Judicial Department, State, IV.-VI. 

July Fourteenth, 135. 

Justices of the Peace, VI. 

Juvenile Courts: Courts, Purpose, Terms "Neglected" and 
"Delinquent," Officers, V. 

Kansas City, mention of, 65. 
Keane, General, mention of, 28. 
Keans, actors, mention of 37. 
Kenner, Town, 82. 

Kentuckians, mention of, 17; 18; 27. 

Kentucky, mention of, 17; IS; 84; Flatboatmen, 20; Sharp- 
shooters, 28. 
Kerlerec, Governor, 14; 17. 
Key West, mention of, 61. 
Kindness, Virtue of, 154. 
King, Miss Grace Elizabeth, 128; 135. 
Kohnke, Dr. Q., 48; 103. 
Kruttschnitt, Ernest B., 101. 

Lafayette, mention of, 33; 38; Square, 121. 
Lafitte (brothers), 25-26. 



XVHI. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Lafourche Parish, mention of, 97. 

Lafreniere, mention cf, 15. 

Lakanal, mention of, 112. 

Lake to River Canals, 72. 

Lakeview, mention of, 40. 

Lambert, General, mention of, 28. 

Lane Mills, mention of, 79. 

"La Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Monseigneur de 
Galvez," 124. 

Laredo, mention of, 61. 

La Salle, 7; Parish, 86. 

Latin Americans, 130. 

Laussat, mention of, 22. 

Law, Department of, 118; John, 9; Bank, 11. 

Lea, Miss Fannie Heaslip, 129. 

Lee Circle, mention of, 63; 122; 123; 149. 

Leeds, Charles, 39. 

Legislative Department, I; Power, Limitations of, III. 

"Le Moniteur de la Louisiane," 21; 124. 

L'Enfant, Charles, mention of, 146. 

"Les Trois Capalins," 21. 

"Les Compte-rendus de l'Athenee Louisianais," 125. 

Letchworth, mention of, 145. 

Levees: Along the River, 3; Construction, 3; Length and 
Size, 3; Protection, 4; Swamp Reclamation, 4. 

Libraries, Public, 39; 121-123; Societies, 121. 

Lieutenant-Governor, Election, Term, Eligibility, Salary, 
Duties and Powers of, III. 

Lights in 1800, 20. 

Liquidation, City Eoard of, 39; State Board of, IX. 

Literature of New Orleans, 124-129. 

Little Woods, mention of, 40. 

Liverpool, mention of, 61; 72; 76; 88. 

Livingston, Edward, 101; Robert, 22. 

Location of Cities, Conditions Governing the, 145; of New 
Orleans, 1. 

Longshoremen, 69. 

Lorient, mention of. 110. 

Lotteries, VI. 

Louis XIV., 8; XV., 14; XVI., 112; Jean, 13; 106. 

Louisiana, Before 1718, Early Explorers, Expeditions of 
Marquette and La Salle, 7; Early Colonization of, 8; 
Proprietary Colony, 9; 10; 11; 12; Colonial Govern- 
ment, 13; Transfer to Spain, 14; 17; Diocese of, 16; 
Period of Transition, 21-23; Transfer to France, 22; 
Purchase by United States, 22-23; Division, 24; 
Creoles of, 24; Admission as State, 25; 30; Secession, 
37; Yellow Fever in, 47; Trade, 65-77; Industries, 78- 
89; Cotton, 78; Corn, 80; Sugar, 80; Rice, 83; Lumber, 
85; Tobacco, 84; Forest, 86; Minerals, S6-89; Truck 
Farming in, 91-92; Fruits of, 94-95; Fish of, 95-96; 
Oyster Industry of, 96-97; Game of, 97-98; Animals of, 
97-98; Bench and Bar of, 100-102; Medicine, History 
of, 102-103; Banking in, 104; Trades in, 105; Educa- 
tion in, 109-121; Law of, 100-102; Historical Associa- 
tion, 123; State Museum, 123; Historical Society, 125- 
127; All Saints' Day in, 134; Government of, See Sup- 
plement; State University, 117; Bank, 104; Planters' 
Bank, 104; P.ailway and Navigation Company, 73; 
Telephone Company, mention of, 62. 

Louisianians, 20; 23; 24. 

Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 3; 39; 68; 73. 

Lovell, General, mention of, 37. 



Loyola University, 119; 149. 
Ludlow, mention of, 37. 
Lumber, 85-86; 91. 
Luzenberg, Dr. C. A., 103. 
Lyceum, 121. 

Mackie, Dr., mention of, 103. 

Madagascar, mention of, 83. 

Magazine Street, mention of, 23; 63; 107; 153. 

Maginnis Mills, mention of, 79. 

Magneto System, 62. 

Mahogany, 91. 

Mail System, 59. 

Maine, mention of, 13; 91. 

Maison Blanche Building, 148. 

Maison de Sant6, 57. 

Malaria, 54. 

Malay Archipelago, mention of, 94. 

Manchac, Bayou, mention of, 8; 9; Fort, 16; Chureh, 59. 

"Manifest," 76. 

Manila, mention of, 13. 

Manila Village, mention of, 97. 

Manual Training, 114-115. 

Manufactures, 90-92. 

Marconi, Gugliemo, mention of, 61. 

Mardi Gras, 131-133. 

Marigny, Plantation, mention of, 24. 

Marine Hospital, United States, 57. 

Markets: Dryades, 54; French, 17; 20; 54; Magazine, 62. 

Marquette, Pere, 7; Hall, 119. 

"Marseillaise, La," mention of, 17. 

Martin, Fransois, 100. 

Martinique, Island of, mention of, 20. 

Maryland, mention of, 126. 

Massachusetts, Colony of, 59. 

Massecuite, 81-82. 

Matagorda Bay, mention of, 8. 

Matthieu, Dr. Jules, 103. 

Maurepas, Lake, mention of, 8. 

Mayor, mention of, 39; 53; 91; 106; 139; 140; 142; List 

of, 42. 
McCaleb, Thomas, 129. 
McDonogh, John, 36; 104; 108; 113; 133-134; Day, 133-134; 

— ville, 133. 
Meats, 98. 

Mechanics and Traders' Bank, mention of, 104. 
Medical College, First, 103; of Louisiana, 116; Societies, 

103. 
Medicine, History of, 101-102. 
Meetings of Commission Council, 139. 
Melpomene, Canal, 43. 
Memphis, mention of, 7; 61; 90; 93. 
Mendez, Don Antonio, mention of, 81. 
Mercer, Dr. W. N, 108. 
Mercier, Dr. Alfred, 125. 
Metairie Ridge and Road, 2; 21; 40; 41. 
Metropolitan Police. 38. 
Mexico, mention of, 7; 8; 9; 15; 130; Cable, 61; Trade 

with, 74; 90. 
Michaud Tract, mention of, 40 
Middle West, mention of, 149. 
Milhet, Jean, mention of, 14; 15. 
Military Rule, 37. 



INDEX— Continued. 



XIX. 



Milliken, Mrs. Deborah, 56. 

Milneburg, mention of, 32; 36. 

Mimms, Fort, mention of, 25. 

Minerals, 86-89. 

Minnesota, mention of, 75. 

Miro, Governor, mention of, 18; 111. 

Mississippi: Company (of the West), 104; River, men- 
tioned frequently as "the River;" River System, 70; 
Valley, 1; 25; 29; 30; 66; 71; 90; 106; 138; Sound, 9. 

Mobile, mention of, 16; 85; 132; Bay, 8; 9. 

Modern Homes, 148. 

Modern Language Association of America, mention of, 127. 

Momus, Knights of, 132. 

Monongahela, mention of, 13. 

Monopolies, 13. 

Monroe, James, 22; 28; Mayor of New Orleans, 37. 

Montreal, mention of, 14. 

Morales, mention of, 18; 24. 

Morehouse Parish, mention of, 78. 

Morse, B. F., mention of, 61. 

Mortality, Chart, rate of, 55. 

Moscoso, mention of, 7. 

Mosquito Theory, 48. 

Mulatto Exodus, 32. 

Mutual Benevolent Society, 103. 

Myles, Salt Mine, 88. 

Napoleon, Bonaparte, 21; 24; 25; 135; Napoleon III., 145; 

Avenue, 68; 107; Branch Library, 122. 
Narvaez, Pamphilo de, 7. 
Nashville, mention of, 126. 
Natchez Indians, 9; 102; War, 12. 
Natchitoches, mention of, 9. 
National Sulphur Company, 87. 
Naval Station, 40; 61; 66-67. 
Navigation Canal, Inner Harbor, 72. 
Need of Government in the City, 137. 
Need of Open Space in Cities, 150. 

Negroes, 10; 20; 38; 113; 120-121; 131; Insurrection of, 12. 
Nereus, 132. 
New Basin Canal, 4; 71. 

Newcomb, Mrs. Josephine Louise, 119; College, 119. 
New England, mention of, 91; 128; 145. 
New Jersey, mention of, 117. 
New Mexico, mention of, 90. 

New Orleans and Carrollton Company, mention of, 63; 104. 
and Louisiana Construction and Improve- 
ment Company, 39. 
and North Eastern Railroad, mention of, 73. 
" " and Pacific Railroad, mention of, 39. 

Board of Public School Directors, 113; 141. 
Board of Trade, 84. 

Canal and Banking Company, mention of, 71. 
Clearing House, mention of, 104. 
Cotton Market, 78. 
" Female Orphan Asylum, 107. 
" Great Northern Railroad, mention of, 73. 

Lake Shore Land Company, mention of, 40. 
" Park Commissioners, Board of, 38. 
Parks, 150-151. 

Public Library, 121-123; 149; Board of Direc- 
tors of, 141. 
" Railway and Light Company, 63. 



New Orleans School of Medicine, 103. 

" Southern and Grand Isle Railroad, 41. 

" Terminal Company, 68. 

Texas and Mexico Railroad Company, 73. 
Waterworks Company, 45. 
"New Orleans," The, 25. 
New Princeton Review, mention of, 128. 
New York City, mention of, 30; 33; 34; 50; 87; 88; 126; 

130; 145; 146. 
Nicholls, Governor F. T., 108; 116. 
Nicholson, Mrs. Eliza Poitevent, 126. 
Noah, mention of, 85. 
Normal School, 112. 
North America, mention of, 8; 13. 
North American Indian, 124. 
Northeast Pass, 30. 
Norwegians, mention of, 131. 
Novel, 127-129. 
Noyan, 15. 

Ocean Springs, mention of, 9. 

Ohio, Canal, mention of, 30; River, mention of, 1; 13; 24; 

30; 91; Valley, mention of, 13; 18; 30; State, mention 

of, 75; 84. 
Oil, 89; Inspection of, 52. 
Oklahoma, mention of, 74; 89. 
Old Basin Canal, 71. 
Old Pelican Club, mention of, 36. 
Omaha, mention of, 71. 
Opelousas, mention of, 32. 
Orange Grove, 95. 
Order, Virtue of, 155. 
O'Reilly, Alexandro, 15; 100; 103; 111. 
Organization of Labor, 105. 
Original Plan of New Orleans, 146. 
Orleans, Club, mention of, 36; Isle, mention of, 9; 14; 22; 

26; Levee District, Board of Commissioners of, 3; 39; 

141; Parish, mention of, 1; 53; 141; Parish Medical 

Society, 49; Territory, 24; 25; Theatre, 36-37. 
Ouachita Parish, mention of, 84. 
Oyster Industry, 96-97. 
Ozark Mountains, mention of, 93. 

Pacific Cable Company, 61; Coast, mention of, 73; Ocean, 
mention of, 61. 

Pakenham, Sir Edward, 26-28. 

Panama Canal, mention of, 67; 76; 90; 94; Exposition, 119. 

Pan-American Medical Society, mention of, 103. 

Paris, City of, 131; 145; Custom of, 14; Treaty of, 1783, 13; 
14; 16; 18. 

Parish, As a Unit of Government, The, VI.; a Public Cor- 
porate Body; Changing Lines of; Subdivisions; Issu- 
ance of Bonds; Police Jury; Other Officers of the; 
Seat of Government; Commission Form of Govern- 
ment, VI.- VII. 

Park: Function, 150; Commissions, 151. 

Parochial Schools, Catholic, 120. 

Parrot, Mrs. mention of, 123. 

Paving, Street, 152-154. 

Patterson, Commodore, mention of, 25. 

Pauger, mention of, 10. 

Pearl River, mention of, 95. 

"Pearl Rivers" (Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson), 126. 



XX. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Pensacola, mention of, 8; 16; 85. 
People of New Orleans, 130-131. 
People's Avenue, mention of, 4. 
Perdido River, mention of, 25. 
P6rique Tobacco, 84. 
Perrier, Governor, 11; 12; 43; 47; 110. 
Persians, mention of, 59. 

Peters Avenue, mention of, 107; 108; Samuel, 121. 
Philadelphia, mention of, 30; 67; 125; Exposition, men- 
tion of, 62. 
Philippine Islands, mention of, 76. 
Physical Training Department of 115. 
Picayune, mention of, 126; 128. 
Pickwick Club, mention of, 132. 
Pilsbury, Edward, 39. 
Pitt, Wm, mention of, 13. 
Pittsburg, mention of, 25; 65. 
Place d'Armes, mention of, 10; 12; 16; 20; 22; 28; 146; 

147; 150; 151. 
Plantation System, 93. 
Plaquemines Parish, mention of, 93; 97. 
Pleasant Street, mention of, 63. 
Poetry, English, 126; French, 125. 
Pointe Coupee Parish, mention of, 78. 
Police. City Guardians, 1800, 21; Commissioners of, 39; 

Metropolitan, 38. 
Political Divisions of New Orleans, 138. 
Poll Tax, 142; XI. 
Pollock, Oliver, 16. 

Pontalba Buildings, mention of, 16; 147. 
Pontchartrain, Count of, mention of, 8; Lake, mention of, 
1; 2; 3; 8-9; 17; 40; 43; 44; 47; 63; 147; Trade on 
Lake, 71. 
Population, mention of, 12; 15; 38; Composition of, 130. 
Port, Chalmette, mention of, 67; Definition of, 65; Improve- 
ment, 72; Sabine, 87. 
Porto Rico, mention of, 74. 
Postage, 59-60. 
Postal Savings Department, mention of, 60; System, 59-60; 

Telegraph, 61. 
Post Office Building, 5; 59-60. 
Potomac River, mention of, 146. 
"Poucha Houmma," 124; Chief, 124. 
Powers of Commission Council, 139. 
Powers, Thomas, mention of, IS. 
Poydras, Julien, 104; 107; 124; Orphan Asylum, 106; 

Street, mention of, 23-24; 71. 
Pratz, La Page du, mention of, 102. 
Premium Bonds, 3D. 
Preparatory Schools, 120. 
Presbyterian Hospital, 57. 
President pro tempore of the Senate, III. 
Princeton, 117. 

Private Schools and Colleges, 120. 
Professions — Trades, 101-105. 
Progresso, mention of, 74. 
Protection Levee, 4; 43. 
Proteus, Mystic Krewe of, 132. 
Prytania Street, mention of, 63. 

Public Affairs, Commissioner of, 140; Department of, 140. 
Publications of Commission Council, 139. 
Public Belt Railroad, 40; 41; 56; 69-70; 92; 140. 
Public Education, State Board of, 113; 127; IX. 



Public Finances, Commissioner of, Department of, 140. 

Public Pleasure Grounds, 150-152. 

Public Property, Commissioner of, Department of, 140. 

Public Safety, Commissioner of, Department of, 53; 140. 

Public School, Alliance, 127; System, 112-116. 

Public Utilities, Commissioner of, Department of, 140. 

Public Works, Commissioner of, 39. 

Pumping Stations, 44; 6S. 

Purchase of Louisiana, 22-23. 

Quadroon, mention of, 20. 

Quarantine, 49-50. 

Quebec, mention of, 7; 14; 145. 

Railroads, 1815-1860, 32; Communication, 73. 

Rampart Street, North, mention of, 13; 18; 63; 146; South, 
131. 

Recall, 144. 

Reconstruction Acts, 37; 112-113. 

Recorders' Courts, 143. 

Red River, mention of, 7; S; 89. 

Referendum, 144. 

Refrigerators, 99. 

Registration, 142. 

"Reign of Terror," 135. 

Reis, Philip, 62. 

Representative of Louisiana, Qualifications of, II. 

Residence, Gain and Loss of, XI. 

Respect for Authority, 155. 

Rex, 132. 

Rice, 71; 83-84. 

Richardson, Dr. T. G., 103; Mrs. Ida, 118; Memorial Med- 
ical School, 118; Architect, 123. 

Rigolets, mention of, 1; 2. 

Rio de Janeiro, mention of, 75. 

Rio Grande, mention of, 72. 

Ripley, Mrs. Eliza, 34. 

Riverport, 65. 

River Traffic, 71. 

Robertson Street, mention of, 118. 

Rocky Mountains, mention of, 8; 70; States, 145. 

Rodriguez's Canal, 27. 

Rogers, Wm. O., 113. 

Roman Code, 15; People, 59; 131; Civil Law, 100. 

Rome, S5; 131; 145. 

Ronald, Francis, mention of, 60. 

Roosevelt, Nicholas I., mention of, 25. 

Rosalie, Fort, 12. 

Roselius, Christian, 101. 

Rosewood 91. 

Ross, Colonel, mention of, 25. 

Royal, Bank of France, 104; Street, 21; 39; 131; Branch 

Library, 122. 
Rue de la Levee, mention of, 19; 20. 
Rugby Academy, 120. 
Russel actor, 37. 
Russia, 131; People of, 131. 

Sabine River, mention of, 95. 

Sacred Heart, Ladies of, 120; Church, 120. 

Salcedo, Governor, mention of, 22. 

Salt, 87-88. 



INDEX-Continued. 



XXI. 



San Domingo, mention of, 8; 13; 17; 18; 20; 21; 24; 81; 

106; Refugees, 17; 18; L0; actors, 21. 
Sanitation, History of, 47; Improvements, 50. 
San Francisco, mention of, 50; 61; 119; 149. 
Santa Maura, mention of, 127. 
Santos, mention of, 75. 
Sauvage, Bayou, mention of, 2. 
"Scalawags," 38. 
School Gardening, 94. 
Scotland, People of, 131. 
Sea Level, 2. 
Seal of State, IV. 
Seaport. 65. 
Secession, 37. 
Second District, 40. 
Second Municipality, 121. 
Secretary of State, 126; II.; III. 
Seismic Observatory, 119. 
Self-Control, Virtue of, 155. 
Semiramis, Queen, 145. 

Semmes, Admiral Raphael, mention of, 98; Thomas J., 101. 
Senate, Louisiana, II.; III. 
Senatorial Districts), II. 
Senator, Louisiana, Qualifications of, II. 
September 14, 1874, 38. 
Seventh District, 40. 

Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home, 108. 
Seven Years' War (See Fourth French and Indian War). 
Sewerage, 41; 43-46; 50; and Water Board, 45. 
Shakespeare, Joseph A., mention of, 39. 
Sheriffs, V. 
Shipping, 65. 

Shoes, Manufacture of, 91. 
Sicily, mention of. 86; Island, 12. 
Sioux City, mention of, 73. 
Sisters of Charity, 56; 107. 
Sisters of Protestant Episcopal Church, 108. 
Sixth District, 40. 
Slaves, African, 9; 11; 12; 15; Indian and Negro, 20; 105; 

Trade Forbidden, 24. 
Slavery, 31. 
Smallpox, 47. 
Soil. 2. 

Soldiers' Home, 108. 

Sophie B. Wright Cirls' High School, 114. 
Sophie Newcomb College, 119. 
Soto, Hernando de, 7. 
Soule, Colonel, College, 120. 
South American Countries, 1: Trade with. 75; Cable, 61; 

mention of, 74: 90-91; 130. 
South Carolina, 37; 125. 
Southern Pacific Railroad, 73. 
Southern Railway Company, mention of, 68. 
Southern States or South, mention of, 74; 105; 106; 112; 

123; 126; 128; People of, 130. 
South Pass, 39; 66. 
Squares and Playgiounds, 151. 

Spain, mention of, 12; 14; 15; 16; 18; 22; 24; 74; 75; 100; 
104; 110; 111; 130; People of, 131 



Spanish Succession, War of, 9; Governor's Home, 18; 19; 
Architecture, 19-20; People in New Orleans, 1800, 20; 
Soldiers, 20; King, 22; Flag, 22; (Frontispiece); Land 
Grants, 24; Pnysicians, 102; Language, 111; Domina- 
tion, 14; 125; Cities, 147; Fort, 36; 71; Schools, 110- 
111. 

Spanish-American War, 48. 

St. Anna's Asylum, 108. 

St. Ann Street, mention of, 21. 

St. Anthony's Square, mention of, 21. 

St. Bernard Parish, mention of, 1; 90; 93; 97. 

St. Charles Avenuo, mention of, 108; 118; 119; 120; 122; 
132; 148; 151; Fort, mention of, 18; Hotel, 34; 35; 
Street, mention of, 39; 148; 151; Theatre, 36; 38. 

St. Elizabeth's House of Industry, 107. 

St. Ferdinand, Fort, mention of, 18. 

St. Ildefonso, Treaty of, 14; 22. 

St. James Parish, mention of, 84; 127. 

St. John, Bayou, m.ntion of, 2; 4; 10; 17; 36; 43; 71; 108; 
151. 

St. Joseph, Fort mention of, 18. 

St. Landry Parish, mention of, 78. 

St. Lawrence River, mention of, 13. 

St. Louis, Bourse, 34; City, mention of, 61; 73; 93; 130; 
Fort, 18; Hotel, 35; 147; Street, mention of, 13; 16. 

St. Martin Parish, mention of, 128. 

St. Mary's Parish, mention of, 81; Orphan Asylum, 107. 

St. Patrick's Hall, mention of, 36; 39. 

St. Peter Street, mention of, 21; 106. 

St. Philip, Fort, 25; 28. 

St. Roch's, 134-135. 

St. Tammany Parish, mention of, 1. 

St. Vincent's Asylum, 108. 

State Boards, IX.-X. ; Public Education, IX.; Agriculture 
and Immigration, IX.; Charities and Corrections, IX.; 
Liquidation of State Debt, IX.; Commissioners of Port 
of New Orleans, IX.-X.; Conservation Commission, X. 

State Journal, mention of, II 

State Library, 121. 

State Normal, X. 

State of Louisiana; See Louisiana. 

State Superintendent of Education, 112. 

Steamboats, 1815-1860, 36. 

Stone, Dr. Warren, 57; 103. 

Storm, 1915, 39. 

Straight, Seymore, University, 121. 

Strawberry Industry, 94. 

Street Railways, 63. 

Streets, in 1800, 20; Lighting, 39; 154; Paving, 152-154; 

Cleaning, 152-154. 

Stuart, Mrs. Ruth McEnery, 128. 

Suffrage, X.-XI. 

Sugar, Introduced, 11; Granulation, 18; Trade, 71; Cane, 
80; Cultivation and Manufacture, 80-82; Experiment 
Station, 82. 

Sulphur, 86-87. 

Superintendent of Education, New Orleans, 112. 

Superior Council, 15. 

Supreme Court, 100; 101; IV.; Jurisdiction, Members, Dis- 
tricts, Sessions, IV. 

Switzerland, mention of, 73; People of, 129. 



XXII. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Tampa, mention of, 61; Bay, 7. 

Tampico, City, mention of, 74; River, 7. 

Tangipahoa Parish, mention of, 94. 

Tax, Rate of, 143. 

Taxation, 142-143; VIII.; State Board of Affairs, IX. 

Taxile, Dr., mention of, 103. 

Tchoupitoulas Street, mention of, 2; 57; 153. 

Technology, College of, 118. 

"Te Deum," mention of. 8; 41. 

Telegraph, 60-61. 

Telephone, 39; 62-63. 

Temperature, 5. 

Tennessee, River, 24; State, 75; 78; 98. 

Tensas Parish, mention of, 78. 

Terminal Stations, 67. 

"Terre Commune,'' mention of, 23; 130. 

Testut, Dr. Charles, 125. 

Texas, mention of, 7; 8; 32; 61; 74; 89; 90; 126; Crop, 78; 
Railroad Commission, 7S; Texas and Pacific Railroad, 
67; 73. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace, mention of, 36. 

Thanksgiving Offering, 134. 

"The Oaks," 21. 

Thevis, Father, 134. 

Thirteen Colonies, mention of, 16. 

Third District, mention of, 134. 

Thomas Hall, mention of, 119. 

"Tignons," 20. 

Tilton Memorial library, 118. 

Timbalier Oyster Field, 97. 

Times-Democrat, mention of, 128. 

Tobacco Trade, 34; 75; 84; 90. 

Tomy Lafon Orphan Boys' Asylum, 108. 

"Tonnage," 65. 

Tonti, Chevalier de, mention of, 47. 

Topography, 1. 

Toulon, mention of, 103. 

Toulouse Street, mention of, 13; 19; 106. 

Tour. Le Blond de la, 10; 146; 150. 

Touro. Judah, 57; Infirmary, 57; Library, 121; Touro- 
Shakespeare Almshouse, 108. 

Town as a Unit of Government, The; Municipal Corpora- 
tions; Officials, VIII. 

Townsend, Mrs. Miry Ashley, 126. 

Trade. 65-77; Laws, 15, of Valley. 71; of Lake, 71; Foreign, 
73-76. 

Trades— Professions-, 100-105. 

Tranchepain. Mother, mention of, 110. 

Treason, VI. 

Treasurer, 39; State, III. 

Treasury, Department of United States, mention of, 49. 

Trinidad, mention of. 74; 153. 

Truck Farming, 03-94. 

Tulane, Paul, 117; Avenue, mention of, 106; 131; Univer- 
sity, 117-118; mention of, 56; 103; 121; 126; 149. 

Turks, mention of, 131. 

Twelfth Night Revelers, 132. 

Typhoid Fever, 48. 

Typhus, 49. 

Ulloa, Don Antonio, mention of. 14; 15; 110. 
Union Normal School, mention of, 121. 
United Fruit Company, mention of. 61; 74. 



United States, mention of, 3; 5; 16; 17; IS; 20; 21; 22; 23; 
24; 30; 32; 37; 39; 40; 41; 49; 50; 54; 56; 57; 59; 61; 
65; 66; 67; 74; 76; 78; 79; 83; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92; 94; 
99; 100; 102; 106; 125; 132; Bank, 101; Mint, 32; Cen- 
sus, 39; Public Health Service, 47-50; 58; 99; Post 
Office, 59; Control of Trade, 65; Immigration Station, 
67; Customs Service, 76-77; Department of Agricul- 
ture, SO. 

University of Louisiana, 116-117; mention of, 126; 127; X. 

University of Virg : nia, mention of, 127. 

Unzaga, Governor, mention of. 111. 

Ursulines, 12; 13; 16; 106; 109; 120; 133; 146; 147; Street, 
mention of, 12. 

Vaca, Cabeza de, 7. 

Vacancies in Commission Council, 139. 

Vaccination, 47. 

Valley Trade, Loss of, 30. 

Varieties Theatro, 132. 

Vaudreuil, Marquis de, 12; 43. 

Venezuela, mention of, 153. 

Vera Cruz, mention of, 110. 

Victor, General, mention of, 22. 

Vieux Carre, 20; 24; 29; 34; 133; 147; 148; 149. 

Villeneufve, Le Blanc de, 124. 

Villere, 15; General Jacques, 26; 27; 50; Street, mention 

of, 118. 
Virginia, State of, mention of, 24. 
Vital Statistics, Department of, State, 52; City, 54. 
Volta, inventor, mention of, 60. 
Voting, 142; Disbarment from, XI. 
Volunteers of America, mention of, 4S. 

Walker, Judge Alexander, 127; Norman, 127. 

War Activities, 135-136. 

War of 1812, 25-28. 

Warren Huston Boys' High School, 114. 

Washington, George, mention of, 13; 146; City, 5; 49; 59; 
146; Patent Office, 62; and Lee College, mention of, 
102; Square, mention of, 151; and New Orleans Tele- 
graph Company. 61. 

Water Supply, in 1S00, 20; System. 41; Works. 45-46. 

Waterways, 70-72. 

Weather Bureau, New Orleans Station, 5; Distribution of 
Forecasts, Value of Forecasts, Changes of Tempera- 
ture, Warnings, 5-6; 84. 

Webster, Daniel, mention of, 101. 

Weeks' Island, mention of, 88. 

Weight and Measure Laws, 51. 

Well-governed Home, 137. 

"West, The," mention of, IS. 

West End, mention of. 36; 71; 147. 

"Westerners," mention of, IS. 

Western Multiple Switchboard, 62. 

Western Packing House, 99. 

Western Union, 61. 

West Indian, 5; Immigration, 24; Port, 47; 61. 

West Indies, mention of, 15; 24; 47; 88; 130. 

Westwego, mention of, 67. 

Wharton, E. ('., mention of, 126. 

Wharves, 39; 65; 67-68. 

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, mention of, 60-61. 

White, Dr. C. B., mention of, 50. 



INDEX-Continued. 



XXIII. 



White Apple Village, 12. 

White League, 38. 

Whitney-Central Bank Building, mention of, 104; 148; 

Morgan, mention of, 151. 
Wilde. Richard Henry, 126. 
Wilkinson, Genera! James, mention of, 18; 23; 25; Dr. C. 

P.. mention of, 49. 
Winnipeg. T:J. 

Winn Parish, mention of, 86. 
Wireless Telegraphy, 61. 



\\ isconsin State, mention of, 75. 
Wortley, Lady, mention of, 35. 
Wrought-iron, 147-148. 

"Xarfffa" (Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsendi. 126. 

Yazoo and .Mississippi Valley Railroad, mention of, 73. 

Yellow Fever, 47-4S; 50. 

Yellow Pine, mention of, So; l. r >4. 

Fucatan, mention of, 74. 



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